LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

§ipt^, drqningl^i !fjj, 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



M:A.]SrUA.L 



OF 



OBJECT-TEAOHINa 

WITH 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS IN METHODS 

AND 

THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 



i .BY 

W. A. CALKINS 

AUTHOR OP "primary OBJECT LESSONS" " PHONIC CHARTS*' 
AND "school and FAMILY CHARTS" 



/-'^ 



"f/ie art of teaching is no shallow affair, hut one of the deepest mysteries of Nature " 

C0MEMU3 






(( DEC g,f-^M 



NEW Y0RK^^S^4ir'"'''^ 
HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 

18 8 2 , / i> ... 



'J>- 



,9>t% 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 
la the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



All rights reserved. 



TO 

TUE TEACHERS OF NEW YORK CITY, 

WHOSE INTEREST IN METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION — MANIFESTED BY 

THEIR ATTENDANCE AT MY SATURDAY LECTURES DURING SUCCESSIVE 

YEARS, BY THEIR USE OF INSTRUCTION GIVEN, AND BY THEIR 

■WORDS OF APPRECIATIVE COMMENDATION — FURNISHED 

MUCH ENCOURAGEMENT FOR EFFORTS IN THEIR 

BEHALF, AND IN BEHALF OF THE BETTER 

EDUCATION OF CHILDREN, 

THIS NEW VOLUME OX TEACHERS' WORK IS 

tiespectfuUn PcIiicatcD. 



PREFACE. 



Knowestg that wliich is needful to be learned is a great 
attainment. Knowing what should be taught, and how to 
teach it, is a high art. To secure this necessary attain- 
ment is the first duty of every teacher. To master the 
high art is like unto the first duty in its imjDortance ; it 
enhances the value of the attainment in knowledge, and 
insures success in the great work of education. 

It is strangely curious that the doing of the same thing 
may be both easy and difficult — easy when done in the 
right way, difficult when done in the wrong way. Suc- 
cess attends tlie doing in the right way ; failure is cer- 
tain to follow the doing in the wrong way. This is em- 
inently true of teaching. Therefore, to determine what 
is the proper way becomes a question of great moment 
to every earnest teacher ; for on the correctness of this 
decision depends the results of the teaching and the 
welfare of the pupils. 

A person may compare the results of one period of 
his work with those of another period, and thus note 
his own growth and progress in that work ; but no per- 
son can measure himself by himself, alone, and thus de- 
termine his actual ability. No teacher can measure his 
own work by itself, and thus determine its true quality. 
To obtain accurate results of any kind of work, and ar- 



6 PREFACE. 

rive at just conclusions as to its cliaracter, comparisons 
must be made under many conditions, and extended to 
a multitude of cases. So the teacher must compare his 
own methods of teaching with those that have been prov- 
en to be good by a long series of practical experiments — 
made under a great variety of conditions, and tested by 
the principles of education — before he can know with 
certainty that he has a standard of high value to guide 
him in the work of instruction. 

Those teachers whose methods agree with the princi- 
ples of education, and are confirmed by intelligent ex- 
perience, stand upon a plane far above that occupied by 
the untrained and unskilled school-keeper, or that of one 
who remains an undecided experimenter in this impor- 
tant field ; and the intelligent work, approved by such 
reliable authority, becomes certain in the character of its 
results, and positive in its value. 

To know how to teach, so as to secure the best results 
of education, is the most common need in teachers. One 
of the chief purposes of this work is to furnish teachers 
with available means whereby they may ascertain what 
is the nature of the being to be taught, the true character 
of the work to be done in teaching, and how the impor- 
tant results aimed at may be attained with a good degree 
of certainty under all ordinary circumstances. Toward 
the accomplishment of this object, a variety of methods 
are described for teaching many subjects, thus endeavor- 
ing to point out those fitted for the differing conditions 
of the largest number of teachers. 

There are many subjects concerning which teachers 
must seek information almost daily — infonnation which 
they cannot be expected to have always at their tongue's 
end, as they do the multiplication table. To have the 



PREFACE. 7 

means necessary for obtaining this, easily accessible at 
all times, is a great boon to the teacher. To supply this 
means, in part, and to point out other sources where the 
desired information may be found, are among the pur- 
poses of this work. Toward the accomplishment of this, 
facts upon several appropriate subjects have been gath- 
ered and arranged for the special convenience of teach- 
ers, thus saving much time that otherwise might be spent 
on encyclopasdias, and other works of reference, even by 
those who have access to such books. It is not claimed 
that these collections of facts, concerning different sub- 
jects, are complete in relation to each topic, yet it is be- 
lieved that teachers will find them specially useful in 
their work. 

Permanent and uniform success in teaching must come 
through the use of those methods which are in accordance 
with the principles of education ; therefore an intelligent 
understanding of those principles is necessary to the 
securing of desired results. From these statements the 
importance of attention to the science of education — of 
knowing what are the several powers of the mind, and 
the means for their development and proper cultivation 
— become readily apparent. By a careful study of this 
department of education, teachers may ascertain M'hether. 
or not the means which they are using will accomplish 
the end in view in the acquisition of knowledge, and the 
proper training of mental power. Indeed, it is the duty 
of every teacher to hioio how to do his work, and also to 
know why he does it in one way rather than in another. 
An important purpose of this volume is to aid the teach- 
er in learning the how and the lohy, in teaching, and thus 
help him onward in the better work of instruction, while 
it awakens, at the same time, a deeper interest in the 



8 PREFACE. 

philosophy of education, and leads to a more thorough 
understanding of the important Avork to be accomplished. 

The introduction of a series of questions for use in the 
examination of teachers on matters pertaining to object- 
teaching, to school management, to methods, and to gen- 
eral principles of education, is believed to be an impor- 
tant feature of this work ; and one that will lead teachers, 
who carefully consider them, to a more intelligent under- 
standing of the chief purposes of instruction, and enable 
them to accomplish better results in the training of those 
under their care. 

It has not been one of the purposes here to present 
all the topics necessary to a complete course of instruc- 
tion, even for a primary school; but rather, by means of 
methods illustrated with several objects, and by the prin- 
ciples of education, to set forth the chief results that 
should be secured through teaching; and to point out 
means within the reach of every teacher by which these 
desirable ends may be attained ; and also to prepare them 
to devise and use equally good methods in teaching ev- 
ery subject. 

It is one of the purposes in this book to increase the 
value of the work of instruction, and at the same time to 
lessen the amount of the teacher's labor, by showing how 
to train pupils to teach themselves. All real teaching is 
self -teaching. It is also an aim to render the work of 
learning more attractive to the pupils, and practical in 
its results, by the use of modes in harmony with natural 
methods of getting knowledge, thereby saving time, and 
making the work both of the learner and the teacher 
more easy of accomplishment. 

Twenty years ago my work entitled "Primary Object 
Lessons" was published. The facts that it has now reach- 



PREFACE. y 

ed its fortieth edition, and also been republished in Span- 
ish, thereby enabling those engaged in the work of edu- 
cation in both divisions of the Western hemisphere to 
become familiar with its plans of instruction, are indica- 
tions that the methods for elementary training which it 
sets forth have been favorably received and widely intro- 
duced. 

The new volume now presented to the public embraces 
the same general plan of instruction as did the former 
one ; and it also extends over a broader field, including 
subjects for more advanced teaching, and introduces a 
greater variety of available means for developing the 
powers of pupils. This volume is further intended to 
supplement my first work on Object Lessons, thus pre- 
senting the subject in greater completeness by means of 
both books. It also specially aims to lead teachers to 
consider the principles of education by which true teach- 
ing is guided to valuable results. 

It is earnestly hoped that this volume on the teacher's 
work will be found valuable for the variety of infor- 
mation whicli it supplies for the use of teachers — for 
the instruction it gives relative to methods of teaching, 
and the development of the mental, moral, and physical 
powers of pupils — for its statements pertaining to the 
science of education and the art of teaching ; also that 
it may become an inspiration, unfolding to teachers a 
more thorough knowledge of their noble calling, and im- 
buing them with an enthusiasm that shall enkindle an 
ardent love of learning in all their pupils. 

N. A. Calkins. 

New York, Aitgusf, 1881. 



CONTENTS. 



DESIGN OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Paoi? 

Stages of Objcct-teacliing 17, 18, 19 

Object Lessons and Object-teaching 21 

How the Child obtains Elements of Knowledge 22 

Importance of Attention to Methods of Teacliing 25 

Other Means than Common Studies needed for Training 27 

Means of Developing Language 27 

AVhat is 01>ject-teaching ? 29 

The Range of Object-teaching 31 

PLACE, DIRECTION, AND DISTANCE. 

To DEVELOP Ideas of Place 34 

To DEVELOP Ideas of Direction 38 

To develop Ideas of Distanx'e 42 

To develop Ideas of Bocndakies and Maps 44 

GEOGRAPHY. 

First Lessons in Elementary Geography 51 

Where to begin 51 

How to proceed 51-56 

To develop Ideas of the Earth's Shape and Size 57 

Repkesentations of the Earth's Scrface on Globes and Maps 59 

How Locations of Countries may be learned 60 

Map Drawing as a Means of Teaching Geography C2 

How to commence Map Drawing C3 

WEIGHT. 

Exercises to develop Ideas of Weight 68 

The Necessity of Standard Weight 70 

Facts about ^V'■EIGIIT, for the Teacher 70 

Tables of Weights 70-72 

Weight of Objects — Comp^vrative 72 

Metric Measure 74 



12 CONTENTS. 

FORM. 

PaOR 

Additional Methods for Elementary Lessons 77 

Reviewing Form Lessons 81 

Advanced Lessons on Form 84 

COLOR. 

Additional Suggestions for Teaching Color 93 

Results of Mixture of Colors 97 

Statements about Color, for the Teacher 103 

Harmony in Colors 106 

Color-blindness 110 

Nature of Color-bliudness Ill 

Tests for Color-blindness 112 

Colors as Signals 114 

Colors as Emblems 115 

Effects of Color on Complexion 116 

Advanced Lessons on Color 117 

Lessons in Harmony of Colors 120 

PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. 

Lessons to develop the Idea of Substances 126 

Substances — Materials for Advanced Lessons on Objects 136 

Suggestions for Lessons 137 

Notes of Lessons 157 

Subjects for Lessons 166 

NATURAL HISTORY. 

Lessons on Animals — First Stage 177 

Lessons on Animals — Second Stage 181 

Lessons on Animals — Third Stage 202 

Notes for Lessons in Natural History 219 

Classification of Animals 229 

PLANTS. 

Hints for Manner of giving Lessons on Plants 250 

Facts for Teachers — about Plants 252 

Sliapcs of Leaves 252 

Shapes of Flowers 255 

Shapes of Roots 256 

Families of Plants 258 

Poisonous Plants 2G4 



CONTENTS. 13 

MINERALS. 

Paqe 

Prepare Pupils to observe Minerals 274 

CUEMISTRY ; OR, ELEMENTS OF SUBSTANCES 278 

Mineral-letters 279 

OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES. 
Lessons on Occupations and Trades 285-288 

PHYSICAL TRAINING. 

Physical Exercises 301 

Movements illustrated 301-308 

Teaching the Movements 309 

Sets of Exercises 310 

Exercise-drill 312 

MORAL TRAINING, AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 
Facts to be remembered by the Teacher 320 

SCIENCE OF C0:MM0N THINGS. 

Atmosphere 331 

Mechanical Powers 337 

SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 

Definitions of Educational Terms 343 

Principles of Education 317 

Directions for Teachers 319 

How Nature Teaches a Child S.").") 

Elements of Mental Activity 359 

MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 

The Mind 364 

The Senses 364 

Organs of Sense 367-373 

Classification of Knowledge gained by the Senses 374 

Developing the Powers of Mind 375 

Cultivating Perceptiveness 375 

Powers of Mental Acquisition 379 

Observation 380 



14 CONTEXTS. 

POWERS OF MENTAL REPRODUCTION. 

Page 

Language 384 

Culture ia the Use of Language 386 

Memory 392 

Culture of Memory 396 

Three Periods of Memory 39Y-400 

Attention 402 

Culture of Attention 403 

Lmagination 408 

Culture of Imagination 411 

POWERS OF HUMAN REASON. 

Comparison 416 

Culture of Comparison 417 

Analogy 420 

Judgment 421 

Reason 423 

Cultivation of Keason 426 

POWERS OF MORAL ACTION. 

The Feelings, Sentiments, and Emotions 430 

Training the Moral Powers 431 

Means of Moral Culture 441 

POWER OF AVILLTNG. 

The Will 413 

Influence of Will on Character 4-15 

Freedom of Will 446 

Training the Will 446 

Will a Power in School Government 449 

QUESTION FOR EX.VMINATION OF TEACHERS 455 

INDEX 465 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



DESIGN OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The term ohject-teachlng has been so frequently applied 
to modes of giving lessons widely differing in matter, 
■manner, and aim, that its real import is often misappre- 
hended. It seems to be necessary, therefore, to explain 
Avhat constitutes ohject-teaching, that the reader may be 
prepared to understand the design of the succeeding 
lessons. 

Object-teaching has for its purpose a thorough develop- 
ment of all the child's faculties, and their proper employ- 
ment in the acquisition of knowledge. It is not a plan 
of fixed, unchangeable methods, but a system of training 
based upon and controlled by the fact that the beginning 
of real knowledge must come through the appropriate 
exercise of the senses. Its purpose is not the attainment 
of facts, nor the cultivation of language as an end, but the 
development, to vigorous and healthy action, of the child's 
powers of getting and using knowledge by the means 
both of obtaining and of using it. It furnishes exercises 
to produce the ability to learn, and methods to aid in 
learning. It does not signify the things about which 
something is taught, nor that which is taught about them, 
so much as it means the principles by which the teaching 
is performed, and the purpose and manner of the teaching. 



16 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

It deals with things, and it considers subjects also. It at- 
tends to realities and their relations, rather than to ideals 
and their representations. It furnishes a means of attain- 
ing clear ideas of distant objects and events through those 
that are near and known. 

Object-teaching prepares the learner's mind, by devel- 
opment begun thi'ough sense-perceptions, and continued 
by observation and reflection, to clearly understand the 
important facts concerning things and acts, and their re- 
lations to spoken and written language. It does not pro- 
pose that the child shall gain all its knowledge from the 
process by which the human race was led through the 
wilderness of personal experiences to the attainment of 
the present sciences, but it does propose to lead the in- 
experienced learner into the midst of objects and influ- 
ences that will awaken the several senses to activity, and 
thus increase his progress in knowledge. It proposes to 
guide the young learner till his enlarged experiences pre- 
pare him to extend his acquisitions through others' expe- 
riences as furnished by books, and also to confirm the 
facts thus gained by his own observations. 

Once more, object-teaching implies. 

First. The use of sj'stematic exercises with objects, for 
the development of the power of gaining knowledge ; 

Second. A training in habits of getting knowledge from 
objects, models, pictures, and diagrams by careful obser- 
vation — both of these ends being reached through the 
guided personal experiences of the learner; 

Third. The teaching of pupils to avail themselves of 
facts discovered by others and recorded in books, and 
training them to verify those facts, so far as practicable, 
by personal examination. 

For further explanation of the design of object-teach- 
ing I will describe the stages into which the work may 
be divided, and the purposes of each. 



STAGES OF OBJEOT-TEACniXG. 17 

First stage of Object-teaching. — The first stage of 
object-teaching has for its chief aim the development of 
the child's perceptive powers through proper exercise of 
the several senses. At this period it does not propose 
the teaching of objects nor of subjects, but rather a sys- 
tematic plan of using objects as a means for developing 
the senses to that facility of activity which will enable 
the child to form habits of gaining knowledge by careful 
observation. 

This stage of object-teaching should be commenced by 
the mother before the child is old enough to enter school; 
and during the first year or two the chief efforts should 
be directed to the supplying of suitable materials to in- 
duce the exercise of each of the senses, and, when neces- 
sary, stimulating the child to use these materials in such 
a way as to become familiar with their easily perceived 
properties and qualities — as colors, shapes, hardness, soft- 
ness, sweetness, sourness, heaviness, lightness, etc. — devot- 
ing less attention to teaching the names of these proper- 
ties than to training the pupils to receive them readily. 

The want of knowledge which the child expresses by 
those familiar and oft-repeated questions, "What is it?" 
" What is it for ?" " Why does it do so ?" should be care- 
fully heeded, and the child led to find answers to his own 
questions, as far as possible, through his personal experi- 
ences. The exercise of liis powers which the child gains 
by that which he sees and does with the objects teaches 
him the most useful lessons during this stage — lessons 
which are more valuable than the words which he learns 
to say about them. It is through such lessons that the 
3'oung learner develops his perceptive powers by the con- 
tact of his senses with the objects about him, and gains a 
real knowledge of them. 

Kindergarten training belongs to this stage of object- 
teaching. And where children enter school without liav- 



18 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ing received any S3'stematic training for the development 
of their senses, either through lionie training or by kin- 
dergarten instrnction, this introductory stage of object- 
teaching should be employed during the lirst term of 
school attendance in the lowest primary class, as a means 
for preparing the young pupils for subsequent instruc- 
tion. 

The efforts toward teaching language during this stage 
should be limited chiefly to the names of objects and 
acts, and to the obvious properties which the pupils dis- 
tinguish. 

Second Stage of Object-teaching. — This stage prop- 
erly belongs to the first years of the child's school-life, 
and its chief aim is to prepare the young pupils for re- 
ceiving instruction in the elementary steps of those sub- 
jects which are included in the course for the first two 
years at school. Ohjeds may now he employed hoth as a 
means of develojyment and as subjects of instruction , hut 
the development and the instruction must he hased upon 
the pnqnl '5 personal experiences. 

Tiie iirst duty of tiie teacher, in the second stage of 
object-teaching, is to supply materials suitable for the ex- 
ercise of the child's powers, and then to stimulate and 
guide in the proper exercise of those powers. The ma- 
terials first provided for instruction at this time should 
consist of objects chiefly. Pictures may be used profita- 
bly during later exercises. The teacher must co-operate 
with and direct the pupil's own activity in the use of 
the materials for the cliild's development, but should do 
nothing to supersede the personal activity of the pupil. 
The child's education comes from that which he does 
himself. The teacher should endeavor to secure disci- 
pline of the pupil's mind through the formation of 
habits of ready and accurate observation. 



STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 19 

When an object is the subject of a lesson, the pupils 
should be led to observe those obvious qualities and prop- 
erties in wliicli it resembles similar objects ; also those by 
which it is chiefly distinguished from other objects, or 
which add most to its usefulness. The teacher should 
cause the instruction about the object to be intimately 
associated with the facts already learned by the pupils 
through their own observations. 

When a snhject or tojyic is the matter of the lesson, the 
pupils should be prepared for the instruction by rirst di- 
recting their attention to kindred facts already known, 
and their knowledge of these used to teach the unknown 
of the new subject. 

During this stage attention should be given to teach- 
ing the children the use of simple language that will en- 
able them to express the knowledge which they acquire 
concerning the objects or the subject-matters that consti- 
tute the lessons. 

Third Stage of Object-teaching. — The acquisition 
of knowledge by means of objects, and the use of facts 
previously learned to aid in gaining knowledge of new 
subjects, become prominent aims of this system of in- 
struction during the third stage of object-teaching. The 
number and kinds of objects, and the range of appropri- 
ate subjects, are now greatly increased. The principles 
which give shape to the plans of teaching during the flrst 
two stages now may be extended to a greater variety of 
subjects; and objects, pictures, diagrams, etc., be used to 
aid the pupils in obtaining clear and correct ideas per- 
taining to these different subjects. 

In lessons upon objects, the pupils should be led to 
distinguish those qualities and properties which give spe- 
cial value to the object, and which chiefly render it suita- 
ble to those uses for which it is commonly employed. 



20 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

If the lessons be on animals, the children may be led to 
observe the prominent peculiarities of some familiar ani- 
mal — as a cat ; such as the shape of its head, teeth, claws, 
feet, ears, eyes, nose ; then these and its habits may be 
compared with others of the same family — as the lion, 
tiger, leopard, lynx, and panther in a menagerie, or by 
means of pictures, and the pupils thus taught their obvi- 
ous family likenesses and characteristics. 

If the subject be geography, the teacher may com- 
mence with the school-room — its shape, boundary, its lo- 
cation, and direction from familiar places in the vicinity ; 
then direct attention to streams, ponds, islands, hills, val- 
leys, and occupations that are known to the children, and 
from their knowledge of these teach them to understand 
lessons about similar objects and occupations in countries 
which they have not seen. 

If tlie subject be arithmetic, counting, adding, and oth- 
er operations with objects may be employed to give cor- 
rect ideas before processes, definitions, or rules are taught. 
Thus the plan of instruction in this stage also places the 
knowledge of things before. words in the order of teach- 
ing, and in the order of importance. It illustrates by 
objects, pictures, drawings, and examples, before present- 
ing descriptions, definitions, or rules. It trains children 
in the manner best suited to the gaining of ideas from 
objects or from subjects, and gives them the proper lan- 
guage for expressing those ideas. It leads also to a clas- 
sification and association of kindred ideas and facts. And 
during succeeding lessons special care is taken to associ- 
ate the new facts with the knowledge previously learned 
concerning the same subject ; also to extend and attach 
all knowledge, as far as practicable, to the affairs of 
daily life; and tlms cause the school- lessons to become 
instruction on real things. 



STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 21 

Object Lessons and Object-teaching. — Tliosc proc- 
esses of instruction which embrace tlie aims ah'eady de- 
scribed, and conform to the principles herein presented, 
and secure the results thus contemplated, may be called 
object-teaching. This sj'stem of using objects, and of 
treating subjects by its methods of teaching, develops the 
mental powers through a proper exercise of the appropri- 
ate senses, and leads to correct habits of gaining knowl- 
edge; therefore, it will be seen that it is chiefly the man- 
ner and 2>'iir2>ose of using objects, as a means of develop- 
ment and instruction, which determines whether the plan 
of proceeding may be called object-teaching, or not. 

An object lesson has for its matter an object, or some 
quality or property of an object, which is made the means 
of gaining ideas and developing certain perceptive pow- 
ers. An object lesson is an individual or single lesson 
upon an object, given in a proper manner, for a definite 
purpose. 

Object -teaching may have as the subject-matter of a 
lesson an object, or a topic, or subject of any branch of 
knowledge. It is a systematic plan for successive lessons, 
so conducted that knowledge is derived from and associ- 
ated with objects and the learner's jiersonal experiences 
to the greatest extent practicable. It may embrace a 
course of instruction including many topics, with each 
lesson founded upon the pupil's previous knowledge, 
wdiile it prepares him for succeeding lessons. It employs 
objects and facts previously known as the means of illus- 
trating the new lesson. It is a process for combined de- 
velopment and instruction in accordance with correct 
principles of education. 

True object -teaching implies knowledge obtained by 
and through the j^t/pH^s jy^^^'sonal experiences luider com- 
petent guidance. The teacher guides the learner to the 
knowledge, but requires the pupil to gain it by his own 



22 ILiNCAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

exertions. The teacher arranges the materials for the 
lesson, and brings the mind of the pupil into such contact 
■with the materials that the activity of the learner's mind 
secures the desired knowledge. 

How the Child Obtains Elements of Knowledge. 
— For the purpose of securing a clearer understanding 
of the basis of object-teaching, and its adaptation to the 
attainment of the important ends in education already 
mentioned, the reader's attention is here invited to the 
following consideration of the manner by which children 
gain ideas and acquire their earliest knowledge. 

It is a well-known fact that the mind is endowed with 
power of acquiring ideas ; that this power is early mani- 
fested through the several organs of sense ; and that by 
this means the elements of our knowledge are obtained. 
Even the consciousness which we have of our own minds, 
and of the mind's power, becomes more complete and 
vivid as the knowledge of things around us becomes 
more definite and thorough. The amount of information 
which the mind may acquire, from all sources, depends 
to a greater or less extent upon the clearness of the ideas 
derived through the senses. It is, therefore, evident that 
material objects and sensible events should comprise a 
large part of the exercises for intellectual training during 
childhood. 

It has been well said that " the knowledge which a 
child acquires by the exercise of its own senses penetrates 
the intellect more deeply and pervades it more complete- 
ly than any other, for it is the impression which nature 
herself makes upon the mind by direct contact ; while all 
other media of instruction are but representatives of nat- 
ure, more or less imperfect."* 

* 3Iaiiual of Human CuUure, by Garvcy. 



STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 23 

The natural development of mind begins with its ac- 
tivity through the organs of sense, and corresponds in its 
progress to tlie facility which it attains in acquiring ideas 
through the influence of external objects. If these chief 
gate-ways of knowledge be but partially opened, the ele- 
ments of ideas must pass through them with difhculty, 
and often become distorted by the passage. But with 
these doors and windows to the mind wide open, the ob- 
stacles to learning are easily overcome, and the pupil's 
progress made rapid, as clearness of perception leads to 
completeness of knowledge. 

The earliest exercises of the child's senses excite in its 
mind a desire to hioiv something about what it sees, 
hears, feels, tastes, smells, etc. This desire for informa- 
tion, or curiosity, increases with the delight experienced 
by new accessions of knowledge, and induces a contin- 
ual mental activity and restlessness during the child's 
waking hours. 

It is also a provision of nature that, as soon as the in- 
fant mind has taken in such knowledge of an object as 
its limited capacity can readily receive without aid, the 
child no longer manifests any interest in or curiosity to- 
ward the object ; and unless a skilful instructor assists 
him in gaining still further knowledge, and thus continu- 
ing the interest, the child soon turns to seek information 
from something new. But, even when thus aided, the 
amount of information which the undeveloped mind has 
power to grasp, or capacity to receive at one time from 
the same object, is very limited, to say nothing of the 
fatigue which might be experienced by efforts to attend 
to the same subject for a long time ; hence the child 
must of necessity change his attention frequently from 
one subject or class of objects to another. 

Nevertheless, after an interval during which the mind 
has been occupied with other things, the same object 



24 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

will afford fresh interest by a repetition of the informa- 
tion given before, thus recalling the pleasure experienced 
during its first reception. These facts account for that 
fondness for variety, or love of novelty, or curiosity, as 
this trait is variously called, which is so prominent in 
children, and which may be made a valuable means of 
aiding the teacher in both the instruction and the man- 
agement of the class. 

The same principles apply to the mind in youth and 
in maturity, the results differing in quantity or degree. 
As the mind attains degrees of development M-hich enable 
it to gain more knowledge from an object, and acquires 
habits of attention which give it the power of observing 
the same subject for a longer time, there is less necessity 
for frequent changes. 

Some objects naturally secure the attention and inter- 
est of children longer than others, because of the variety 
of the information which may be received from them, and 
the greater number of senses and faculties which they ex- 
cite to action. Objects that move, and those which the 
children can themselves cause to move, and to assume va- 
rious positions and shapes, and those exercises in which 
the children have something to do, belong especially to 
this class. Now it is of great importance for parents and 
teachers to remember these facts during the early train- 
ing of children. 

In conformity with these provisions of nature, and their 
relation to the capacit}'^ of the infant mind, the first les- 
sons of instruction should he short and frequently alter- 
nate. But as the mind becomes stronger from repeated 
exercises, the habits of continuous attention become fixed, 
and its capacity enlarged by development, the lessons may 
be increased in length, and the same subjects continued 
longer under investigation. 

Habits are formed by repetitions of the same acts. 



STAGES' OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 25 

The pupil's habits of learning are cliieflj formed by the 
modes of instruction employed by the teacher. To attain 
correct habits, the foundation must be laid in childliood. 
If a child be early trained in habits of accurate obser- 
vation of the various properties of tlie common objects 
around him, he will have a permanent guarantee for the 
successful acquisition of knowledge during after-years. 

We cannot add a neio poicer or faculty to the mind 
by any method of teaching, nor change the natural mode 
of its development; but we can surround it with influ- 
ences adapted to awaken its slumbering energies, and thus 
increase its power of action. 

Importance of Attention to Methods of Teaching. 
— It is a well-known fact that proper exercise develops 
and strengthens our limbs. The mind is subject to the 
same laws of development, and requires suitable exercise 
to give it the power of vigorous action. The manner of 
learning^ as well as the facts acquired, develops the mind, 
and disciplines its powers in habits that influence all its 
subsequent attainments in knowledge. It becomes, tliere- 
fore, a matter of great moment what methods of instruc- 
tion shall be employed in the processes of early educa- 
tion, since upon these must depend, to a great extent, the 
habits of learning that will influence all the future career 
of the pupil. Systematic object -teaching gives special 
attention to the manner of learning with a view to the 
formation of the best habits. 

The principles of object-teaching require that children 
shall first he trained to nse their several senses with facili- 
ty, and to observe with accuracy j that they shall he taught 
to compare objects, and classify like things and facts, and 
to describe intelligently what they observe around them. 
These principles also require that children shall be taught 
tlie rudiments of each subject presented to them, during 



26 MAlfUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the early stages of education, in accordance with the nat- 
ural mode of gaining knowledge, before books relating 
to the subjects are placed in their hands; also that these 
elementary steps of instruction shall prepare the way for, 
and lead to an intelligent use of text-books. During the 
third stage of object-teaching the pupils should be en- 
couraged to seek knowledge from books as well as from 
objects, and thus form correct habits of learning from 
this important source of knowledge. 

Object-teaching takes heed of the jyroTninetit character- 
istics of childhood — the desire to use the respective senses 
in seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, etc., and their limbs 
in doing. It leads children to ^lse their 2^owers for jper- 
ceiving, trains them to hnow froin ohsei'ving, and to ac- 
cumulate knowledge hj classifying like objects, facts, and 
experiences^ and associating them with the things to which 
they chiefly relate. 

Children generally make great progress in tlie use of 
their senses, in the develojiment of their faculties, in ac- 
quiring facts from surrounding objects, and in strength- 
ening their physical powers, before they enter school. 
Object-teaching requires that due cognizance shall bo 
taken of these facts, by ascertaining the extent of this 
progress, and then employing the appropriate means for 
continuing the })upirs advancement in knowledge in ac- 
cordance with the same laws of nature Avhich controlled 
the process of learning before the child came under the 
influence of school. For the accomplishment of these 
aims, suitable exercises are provided whereby the unde- 
veloped powers of the pupils — their defects of hearing, 
seeing, speech, etc. — are as far removed as the nature of 
the case will allow. Thus it is the design of object-teach- 
ing, during all the stages of instruction, to consider first 
the real state of the nnnd's development, as a means of 
determining Avhat steps should be taken in the methods 



DEVELOPING LANGUAGE. 27 

of teaching, and then to proceed in accordance witii the 
needs of the case and the laws of mental growth. 

Other Means than Common Studies needed for 
Training. — The common studies — reading, spelling, arith- 
metic, granmiar, geography, and writing — do not supply 
all the needed opportunities for fixing the attention and 
continuing the interest of pupils; nor do these furnish 
the varied exercises for training the several senses of 
children in a manner that will lead to a complete devel- 
opment of the different faculties of the mind. Indeed, 
these subjects, as too commonly taught, do not lie within 
the range of the usual experiences of children ; therefore 
they do not furnish the best materials for the first steps 
of instruction. For these reasons lessons on the shape, 
color, and qualities of objects, the prominent characteris- 
tics of animals and plants, and various other objects, are 
needed both to precede and supplement the means for- 
merly used in elementary instruction. It is only when 
the conditions for instruction are favorable that pupils 
may be easily led to form those good habits of learning 
which will secure a proper mental development, and the 
power resulting from right discipline of mind. A cor- 
rect hahit of lemming is chief among the imjportant ends 
to he secured hy ohject-teaching. 

Means of Developing Language. — Object-teaching 
supplies the very best means for developing the language 
of children. The child first learns to use the names of 
things, then the names of actions, and afterward names 
of kinds and qualities of things, and words that tell 
when, where, and how actions take place. 

His lessons on objects, of whatever kind, continually 
add to his vocabulary of words representing names ; of 
words telling the qualities, properties, shapes, colors, and 



28 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHmG. 

uses of objects ; of words representing various actions, and 
the manner and time of those actions. Besides, by true 
object-teaching he is led to see, to think about what he 
sees, and then to talk about it, or describe it to others. 
He is taught which are the best words to use, and how to 
employ them, both in spoken and written language. He 
is tlius supplied with all the materials necessary for a full 
development and ready use of our language. 

The matter of developing the language of the pupils, 
and training them to use it correctly and fluently, should 
constitute one of the aims of object-teaching throughout 
all the subjects of instruction, even though not mentioned 
in connection with each group of lessons. 

To this end the mistakes made by the pupils should be 
noticed, and correct expressions taught them. Languarje 
is hest learned hj its ])roper use, not hy rules. 

Wherever the characteristics of childliood are care- 
fully studied and clearly understood, the utility and im- 
portance of object-teaching, in the processes of elemen- 
tary education, can no more be questioned than can 
the necessity and usefulness of the gardener's labor in 
preparing tlie soil for his plants, or that of the farmer 
in getting his fields ready for the various seeds which 
he hopes will spring up and produce the ripened grains 
and delicious fruits both as the result and the reward of 
his labors. 

Whoever studiously observes the means by which the 
minds of children are naturally developed, and the man- 
ner of acquiring that which is most lasting in its sub- 
stance, most enduring in its influence, and most practical 
in its usefulness, of all their educational attainments, can- 
not fail to acknowledge the important agency of object- 
teaching, when directed by a skilful teacher, in laying tlie 
best possible foundation and supplying the best condi- 
tions of success in elemcntarv education. 



WHAT IS OBJECT-TEACHING? 29 

Object-teaching. — What object-teacliing is has been 
described so exceedingly well by Professor S. S. Geeene, 
of Brown University, tliat I take the liberty of repeating 
his language in this connection.'-^ 

"Object-teaching is that which takes into account the whole 
realm of nature and art, so far as the child has examined it, and 
assumes as known only what the child knows — not what the 
teacher knows — and works from the well known to the obscurely 
known, and so onward and upward till the learner can enter the 
fields of science or of abstract thought. It is that which devel- 
ops the abstract from the concrete, which develops the idea, then 
gives the term. It is that which appeals to the intelligence of 
the child through the senses until clear and vivid conceptions are 
formed, and then uses these conceptions as something real and 
vital. It is that which follows Natiu'e's order — the thing, the 
conception, the word ; so that when this order is reversed — the 
word, the conception, the thing — the chain of connection shall 
not be broken ; the word shall instantly occasion the conception, 
and the conception shall be accompanied with the firm convic- 
tion of a corresponding reality. It is that which insists upon 
something besides mere empty, verbal expressions in every school 
exercise ; in other words, it insists upon expression and thought 
in place of expression and no thought. It is that which culti- 
vates expression as an answer to an inward pressing want, rather 
than by a fanciful collection of pretty phrases culled from differ- 
ent authors. It is that which makes the school a place where 
the child comes in contact with realities, just such as appeal to 
his common" sense when he roams at pleasure in the fields. It is 
that which relieves the child's school task by making it intellir/i- 
ble and possible. It bids him examine for himself, discriminate 
for himself, and express for himself ; while the teacher stands by 
to give hints and suggestions, not to relieve the labor. In short, 
it is that which addresses itself directly to the eye, external or 



* From "A Report on Object-teaching^^ made before the National Teachers' 
Association, 1805. 



30 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

internal ; which summons to its aid things present or things ab- 
sent, things past or things to come, and bids them yield the les- 
sons which they infold ; which deals with actual existence, and 
not with empty dreams." 

Its Effects. — " It should be introduced in some way every- 
where. It will aid any teacher in correcting dogmatic tenden- 
cies, by enlivening his lessons, and giving zest to his instructions. 
He will draw from the heavens above, and from the earth be- 
neath, or from the waters under the earth, from the world w'ith- 
out, and from the world within. He will not measure the in- 
struction by pages, nor the progress by fluency of utterance. 
He will dwell in living thought, surrounded by living thinkers. 
Thoughtful himself, he will be thought-stirring in all his teach- 
ing. In fact, his very presence, with his thought-inspiring meth- 
ods, gives tone to his whole school. * * * Object-teaching has a 
direct influence upon the teacher himself. It cannot be pursued, 
even tolerably well, without making it manifest to any one that 
the great object of teaching is to deal with ideas rather than to 
crowd the memory with words. He who can give an object les- 
son well is capable of giving any lesson well, because he has 
learned that it is the reality, and not the expression of it, that is 
the chief object to be gained. He who makes it his first, second, 
and last aim to teach realities will soon discover two essential 
conditions : he must know the present capacity and attainments 
of the child, and then what realities are suited to them. 

" If it were not for one fact, our primary schools would Lave 
cabinets of natural objects as varied as those that fill the halls of 
our highest institutions, and that is the simple fact that children 
can remember words, as words, without associating them with any 
idea tvhatever. They can use words which mean much, while to 
them they mean nothing. They can repeat them fluently, and use 
them as though they really meant something to themselves, by 
imitation of the teacher's voice. They can see that the teacher 
accepts them as though all was right. Here is a double evil: 
the teacher is a stranger to the child's real condition, and the 
child supposes he is actually learning something. 

"One reason why many oppose object -teaching is the fact 



THE RANGE OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 31 

that they cannot readily free themselves from the impression that 
their knowledge of the subjects to be taught is somehow neces- 
sarily connected with the language of the text-book. They have 
never tried to disengage it from the particular forms into which 
some author has moulded it. They use technical terras, and often 
the worst of technical terms, because they know no other. There 
is an almost servile dependence upon the use of certain terms; 
and if the whole truth were known, it might appear that the idea 
is not sufficiently mastered to disengage it from the term. IIow 
can such a teacher do otherwise than cling to his authority ? 

*' The very essence of teaching lies in a living apprehension of 
the subject itself; such an apprehension as will enable the teacher 
to adapt his instruction to the child's real wants ; which is just 
■what a text-book cannot do. Teach realities is the true teach- 
er's motto. To this he commits himself; nay, crosses the river 
and burns the bridge. He is ashamed of his teaching if it is 
anything short of this. Hence his ingenuity, his aptness, his ver- 
satility, liis varied resorts in an emergency. He can teach with a 
text-book or without it. A text-book in his hand becomes alive.''^* 

The Range of Object-teaching, — "It draws its mate- 
rials from all branches of knowledge, dealing with things which 
can interest the child or exercise his mind. Thus it is Natural 
History for children ; for it directs their attention to animals of 
all classes, domestic and others, their qualities, habits, uses, — to 
trees, and plants, and flowers, — to the metals, and other minerals, 
which are in constant use. 

" It is Physical Science for children ; for it leads them to ob- 
serve the phenomena of nature, the sun, moon, and stars, and 
the seasons, with the light and heat which mark the changes of 
weather, with clouds, rain, dew, snow, and the properties of tlie 
bodies which form the mass of matter around us. 

" It is Domestic Economy for children ; for it exhibits to them 
the things and processes daily used in their homes, and the way 
to use them rightly. 

" It is Industrial and Social economy for children ; for it leads 

* Greene. 



32 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

them to observe the various trades, and processes in different art- 
occupations, and the arrangements as to the division of hibor 
whicli society has sanctioned for carrying these on in harmony 
and mutual dependence. 

" It is Physiology for children ; for it causes them to learn 
from their own bodies the uses of the various members for phys- 
ical and mental ends, and tells the way to use them best to avoid 
their abuse. 

" It is the Science of Common Things for children ; for it dis- 
regards nothing whicli can come under their notice in their con- 
tact with the world around them, and in their intercourse with 
their fellows or their superiors."* 

" Object Lessons should be extended to a range of things far 
wider than now. They should include those of the fields and 
the hedges, the quarry and the sea-shore. They should not cease 
with early childhood, but should be so kept up during youth as 
insensibly to merge into the investigations of the naturalist and 
the man of science. 

" Having gained due familiarity with the simpler properties 
of inorganic objects, the child should by the same process be led 
on to a like exhaustive examination of the things it picks up in 
its daily walks — the less complex facts they present being alone 
noticed at first. In plants, the color, number, and forms of the 
petals, and shapes of the stalks and leaves. In insects, the num- 
ber of the wings, legs, antennse, and their colors. As these be- 
come fully appreciated and invariably observed, further facts may 
be successively introduced. Here we have but to follow Nature's 
leadings. Where can be seen an intenser delight than that of 
children picking up new flowers, and watching new insects, or 
hoarding pebbles and shells ? 

" The consistent follower of Bacon, the ' servant and interpreter 
of Nature,' will see that we ought modestly to adopt the course 
of culture thus indicated."! 

* James Currie, Principal of the Church of Scotland Trainiug College. 
+ Herbert Spcuccr, iu his Education. 



LESSONS OX PLACE, DIRECTION, AND DISTANCE. 



PLACE, DIEECTION, AND DISTANCE. 

INTRODUCTORY TO GEOGRAPHY. 

Ideas of location and direction are necessary to an un- 
derstanding of even the most elementary lessons in Ge- 
ography. Before children can. comprehend the relative 
location of comitries in different parts of the world, they 
must have observed the position of objects around them, 
and the direction of the same from each other and from 
themselves. Some ideas of such things are usually ac- 
quired by children, even when left to their own experi- 
ence ; but their knowledge of location and direction will 
remain too indefinite to be of much utility in learning 
geography without special training on this matter in the 
school -room. It, is for this reason that the following 
lessons on Place and Direction have been introduced, 
with a view to leading children to notice carefully the 
objects and scenery around the school and home, and 
insure the necessary preparation for elementary steps in 
Geography. 

These preparatory lessons will differ as widely as the 
locations of the schools and the homes and the objects 
and scenery surrounding them differ, and therefore they 
must always be given orally. Not only must they be 
given without text-books, but they must be made up from 
actual observations and experience of the pupils. 

The folloioing lessons are intended only to explain the 
manner of conducting this oral training, and not as some- 
thing to be taught to the pupils. 

2* 



34: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF PLACE. 

FIRST SERIES OP EXERCISES. 

First Exercise. — Teach the children to distinguish the 
right and left hands; right and left arms, elbows, shoulders, ears, 
eyes, cheeks, feet, and various objects to the right and to the left 
of the pupils. Li doing this the teacher may ask : 

Which is your right hand ? Which is your Uft hand ? Hold 
your book in your right liand. Take your book in your left hand. 
Who sits at your right side ? Who sits at your left side ? What 
things can you see on the left side of the room? What things can 
you see on the right side of the room ? Stand on your right foot. 
Rest on your left foot. 

When the children can readily distinguish right and left posi- 
tions, they may be led to understand the terms front, back, rear, 
before, behind, above, over, below, under, by the side of, etc. This 
can be accomplished by holding a book or other object above 
the table, below it, bg the side of it, to the left of it, before it, 
etc., and requesting the pupils to tell, in each instance, tohere the 
object is held. 

Second Exercise. — Place three objects on a table in front 
of the class — one on each end, and one in the middle of the ta- 
ble; as a cup, a book, and a slate. Then require the pupils to 
observe and tell where each object is located, thus : 

The cup is in the middle of the table. The book is on the right- 
hand end. The slate is on the left-hand end of the table. 

When several of the pupils have described the position of 
the objects, each may be changed to another place, and the pu- 
pils requested to describe the new location. Afterward all the 
objects may be removed, and different pupils called upon to place 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— PLACE. 35 

them in their former positions. Then they may be required to 
place them as directed, thus : 

Place the cup on the nearest right-hand corner. Place the book 
on the farthest left-hand corner, etc. 

Third Exercise. — Place four objects on the table, and re- 
quest different pupils to describe the position of each, as in the 
last exercise. 

Remove the objects, and then let the pupils place them in the 
positions -which they occupied when described. 

Afterward let pupils go to the table, singly as called upon, and 
each place an object in a position as described by the teacher. 

Continue these exercises, as before, with five objects. 

During the preceding exercises the several pupils should be al- 
lowed to take an active part in each until they have become suf- 
ficiently familiar with position, ov place, to be able to distinguish 
the position of several objects, and to replace them after they 
have been removed. 

Representing Position. — ^Yhen the pupils are able to 
describe the position of objects, and to place them in position 
from descriptions, and to replace them from memory, they may 
be taught to reiyresent their positions on the blackboard and on 
slates. 

Having placed three objects on the table so that one stands in 
the centre, one in the front right-hand corner, one in the back 
left-hand corner — the teacher may show the pupils how to repre- 
sent the surface of the table on the blackboard, and the position 
of each object on it, somewhat in the following manner : 

I wish to draw lines on the blackboard to represent the sides 
and ends of this table or its 'boundaries, so that you will see there 
the shape of its surface ; also to place marks to show the positron 
of each object on the table. I wish to represent the position of tlic 
table and these objects, just as they would appear to you were I to 
take up the top of the table and place it against the blackboard, as 
I now take up this slate and jDlace it against the blackboard. 

Teacher. Now please tell me where I shall draw the line to rep- 
resent the back edge of the table. 

Pupils. Across the blackboard, above the middle. 



36 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Teacher. Where shall I draw the line to represent the front edge 
of the table ? 

Pupils. Across the blackboard, below the middle. 

T. Where shall I draw the line to represent the left end of the table ? 

P. From the up^^er to the lower line, near the left side of the 
blackboard. 

T. Where shall I draw the line to represent the right end of the 
table ? 

P. From the upper to the lower line, near the right side of the 
blackboard. 

T. Now we have the shape of the surface of the table represent- 
ed, who can tell me where to make marks to show the position of 
tlie book on the table ? 

P. Make them at the right side, near the lower corner. 

T. Where shall I make marks to show the position of this cube 
on the table ? 

P. Make a small square iu the centre of the drawing on the 
blackboard. 

T. Where shall I make marks to show the position of the bell on 
the table ? 

P. Make a circle at the left side, near the upper comer. 

The teacher will please notice that in each case the 
pupils are called to observe and describe, and thus direct 
what the teacher shall do. The teacher must see that the 
pupils do their own part of the observing, thinking, and 
describing, while he represents what thej describe, and 
also requires them to determine whether or not the rep- 
resentation is correct. 

After two or three representations of the surface of 
the table, with the position of three or more objects upon 
it, have thus been drawn on the blackboard, the pupils 
may make a copy of the representation upon their slates. 
They may also be called to locate the objects in the draw- 
ing upon the blackboard, and to represent their positions 
on the table. 

These exercises will prepare the pupils for understand- 
ing the use of maps when instruction in elementary ge- 
ography is commenced. 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— PLACE. 37 



SECOND SERIES OF EXERCISES. 

First Exercise. — Lead the pupils to describe the location 
of several objects in the school-room, somewhat after this manner : 

The door is in the left-hand corner of the room. 

The windows are on the right-liand side of the room. 

The stove is in tlie centre of the room. 

The teaclier's desk is in the front part of the room. 

The cliair is back of the teacher's desk. 

The closet is at the right of the desk. 

The teacher may also ask questions similar to the following : 

Where is the ceiling of this room ? Where is the blackboard ? 
What room is nearest this ? AVhat room on the left of this ? What 
room back of this ? How many class-rooms are there on this floor ? 

Eepresent the shape of this room on the blackboard, and the 
position of the prominent objects in the room that occupy space 
on the floor. Let pupils copy the representation on their slates. 

Second Exercise. — Request the pupils to draw on their 
slates the boundaries of the class-room, and represent the posi- 
tion of the objects in it from their own observation. 

Third Exercise. — Let the pupils draw the outline shape 
of one floor of the school building, and represent the location of 
the several rooms on the floor. 

Other Exercises. — Talk with the pupils about the differ- 
ent kinds of rooms at home, and encourage them to make draw- 
ings of single rooms, also of several rooms of a house, as kitchen, 
dining-room, pantry, hall, parlor, bedroom, etc. 

Encourage the pupils to represent the location of objects about 
the school-house, as streets, yards, etc. 



38 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF DIRECTION. 

First Exercise — Simple Direction. — The first lesson 
may be a simple one of direction alone. Request the children to 
point toward objects in the school-room ; then toward the streets 
near, as eacli is named by the teacher; also toward the nearest 
house, store, church, railroad, river, pond, canal, mountain, hill, 
village, etc. 

Of course the location of the school, and the objects surround- 
ing it, must determine what the teacher will ask the pupils to 
point at. 

Second Exercise — To Show the Necessity of 
Fixed. Points of Direction. — For the accomplishment of 
this purpose the teacher might say to the pupils: ""When I 
asked you about the position of different objects in this room, 
you said that one of them was located at your right hand, an- 
other one at your left hand, and so on. Now observe where I 
stand, and tell me whicli way I must walk to go to the door." 

" You must go toward the right." 

After turning half-way around, the teacher says, " Now must I 
go to the right to find the door?" 

" No, the door is behind you." 

Turning half around again, the teacher asks, " ^lust I go to the 
right, now, to find the door ?" 

" No, the door is in front of you." 

"Thus you see that you must know where and how the per- 
son stands before you can direct him, by the use of the terms 
right or left, which way he must go to find any given object. 
Suppose a person should inquire the way to the post-office, could 
you inform him by saying ' Go toward the right,' if you did not 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DIRECTIOX. 39 

see ^v'hethcr his right hand was on the side toward the post- 
ofiicc ? 

" You perceive that it would be very difficult to direct people 
where distant objects and places may be found without having 
some fixed points of direction which all understand. There are 
such fixed points commonly known, and these I propose to teach 
you in the next lesson." 

Third Exercise— Points of Compass.— You may point 

in the direction in which you see the sun at noon. Ycry well. At 
noon the sun is in the south. Now point toward the south. 

Point in the direction in which you see the sun in the morning. 
"We say the sun rises in the morning, and sets in the evening. Now 
point to the place where the sun rises. Now point to the place 
wliere the sun sets. 

The place where the sun rises is called the east. You may point 
toward the east. 

Tlie place where the sun sets is called the tcest. You may point 
toward the west. 

What can you see in this room that is east of you? 

What can you see that is icest of you? 

John, you may walk in this room toward the east. 

James, you may walk toward the west. 

My bedroom has windows on one side of it. In tlie morning, 
when the sun rises, it shines in at my windows. On which side of 
the house is my bedroom ? On wliich side of my room are the 
windows ? 

Does the sun shine into your bedroom in the morning ? 

Through wliich window in the school-room will the sun shine in 
the morning ? Through which in the afternoon ? 

As I was walking the other day, I saw the sun before me, appear- 
ing like a very large red ball, sinking behind the hills. In what 
direction must I have been walking ? 

At the close of the lesson the children may repeat : 

The place where the sun rises is called the east. The place where the 
sun sets is called the West. The place where we see the sun at noon is 
called south. 

Fourth Exercise — Points of Compass.— You may 
point toward the east. Point toward tlie west. You may now 
point in the direction in which you see the sun at noon. What 



40 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

is the place called where the sun is seen at noon? You may 
point toward the south. 

The class may stand with backs toward the south, and right 
hands toward the east. Now the direction in front of you is called 
the north. You may point toward the north. 

Point toward the west with your left hand. 

Turn your face toward the south. Now point toward the east 
with your left hand, and toward the west with your right hand. 

Once more stand with your right hand toward the east and your 

left hand toward the west. The point before you is called ,* 

and the point behind you is called the .* The point at your 

right hand is .* The point at your left hand is .* 

Four pupils may now be called uj^on to walk, in the school-room, 
in the direction of the four points of compass. Let each pupil be 
required to tell, before returning to his seat, in what direction he 
walked, also in what direction he must go to return to his seat. 

The class may stand facing the north. Now point in the direc- 
tion between north and east. The point between north and east is 
called north-east. 

Now point in the direction between 7iorth and west. The point 
between north and west is called north-west. 

The class may face toward the south. Now point in the direction 
between south and east. The point between south and east is called 
south-east. Point toward the south-east. 

Point in the direction between south and west. The point be- 
tween south and west is called south-west. Point toward the south- 
west. 

The class may now point as I name the direction : — south; south- 
west ; south - east ; east ; north ; north - cast ; north - west ; west ; 
south-west ; north-east ; south-east ; north ; south ; etc. 

When the members of the entire class are thus called to point 
simultaneously, it is necessary to train them to be self-reliant, and 
to point without waiting to see how their class-mates do. To 
secure this independent action of each pupil let the teacher point 
at the same time in a different direction from the one given to 
the class, thus : 

Teacher says, " Point to the east ;" but at the same time the 
teacher points toward the south. Teacher says, " Point toward the 



* Let the children supply the ellipsis. 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DIRECTION. 41 

north," but points toward the west. Teacher says, " Point toward 
the south-east," but points toward the south-west. 

By this means the children soon learn to point toward the 
direction named, regardless of the way in which others point. 

This plan will materially aid in training the pupils to knoiv all 
the points of the compass with certainty, and also is suitable for 
rapidly reviewing large classes in this subject. 

"Boxing the Compass." — Beside the eight points of 
compass, already named, there are eight others, making sixteen 
altogether. All of these are used by sailors. A sailor is said to 
be able to "Box the Compass" when he can name these sixteen 
points in their order, thus : 

North, north-north-east, north-east, east-north-east, east, east-south- 
east, south-east, south -south -east, south, south- south -w'est, south- 
west, west-south-west, west, west-north-west, north-west, north-north- 
west. 

Fifth Exercise. — ^lien the pupils have learned to point 
out and. name each of the eight directions commonly known as 
" the points of compass," let them be required to apply this 
knowledge in stating the directions of objects in the vicinity of 
the school. 

Let them tell what direction different members of the class 
must take in coming to school, also what directions must be 
taken by them in going home. 

Suppose you were walking toward the north in the morning, over 
whicli shoulder would you look for the sun ? Which way would 
you look for the sun if walking north in the afternoon ? Sujjpose 
you were walking toward the sun at noon, in what direction would 
you be going ? 

Does a street cross the one which passes by the school -room ? 
In what direction does it run ? Which way from us is that street ? 
Do any of you live on it? If you were going home, in what direc- 
tions would you go ? 



42 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF DISTANCE. 

In the natural modes of learning, children take notice of dis- 
tance as well as of direction. This, therefore, becomes an im- 
portant item in the elementary steps of instruction preparatory 
to lessons in geography. Inasmuch as the subjects of " Size," 
"Length," "Measure," "Distance," etc., have been presented in 
"Primary Object Lessons" [on pages 261-281], the teacher will 
do well to examine what is said there relative to the more ele- 
mentary steps in the presentation of these subjects, and espe- 
cially the suggestions pertaining to "Distance" [on page 275]. 

In addition to the lessons there presented, it is also desirable 
that the teacher should give a few exercises which will cause the 
pupils to associate ideas of direction and distance as their at- 
tention is given to familiar objects, places, etc., in the vicinity 
of the school-house, during these lessons introductory to geog- 
raphy. 

First Exercise — Naming Relative Distances. — Re- 
quest the pupils to name two streets running the same way, and 
tell which is more distant. Let them name the pupils that live 
nearest to the school in the same direction from it, also those 
that live most distant. Let them name streams, hills, ponds, 
orchards, fields, etc., that are near, and those that are distant. 
Let them also name objects, buildings, or places that arc in dif- 
ferent directions from the school, and tell which arc nearer and 
which more distant. Let them mention places that are about 
half a mile distant, also those that are a mile distant, etc. 

Representing Relative Distances. — The teacher may 
now represent on the blackboard the direction and relative dis- 
tances of several of the objects, places, etc., named, and then re- 
quest the pupils to copy these on their slates. Afterward the 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DISTANCE. 43 

pupils may be requested to represent on tlicir slates the direc- 
tion and relative distances of other places, as the teacher names 
them. 

The pupils may represent tlie location of the school-room near 
the centre of their slates ; then draw lines to represent the streets 
that pass the school. 

Direct the pupils to write North at the top of the slate, South at 
the bottom, East at the right-hand side, West at the left-hand side. 
Then request them to represent the objects, places, etc., that are 
north of the school, in their relative positions toward the toj) of the 
slate ; then the places that are south of the school toward the bot- 
tom of the slate; and those east of the school toward the right-hand 
side ; and those icest of the school toward the left-hand side. 

Similar exercises may be continued, as the condition and prog- 
ress of the class seem to demand. These will be interesting from 
the fact that they furnish the children with something to do, and 
will aid in preparing them to understand the representations by 
maps. 

Such lessons may be extended so as to embrace all prominent 
objects and places within the 2^ersonal observation of the piqnls ; 
as churches, school-liouses, villages, railroad, depot, river, manu- 
factory, lake, mountain, mine, etc., even though several miles 
may be included in the distances. 



44 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF BOUNDARIES AND MAPS. 

Teaclier. I will now try to make a drawinj]^ or map of this room 
on the blackboard, and I wish you to tell me where to place lines 
to represent the different parts of it. First I will tell you some im- 
portant facts which must be remembered when drawing a map of 
any place : 

The marks representing the north part, side, or end of the object 
must be placed at the top of the blackboard or slate, and those rep- 
resenting the south part at the bottom of the board ; those repre- 
senting the east at the right-hand side ; those representing the west 
at the left-hand side. 

I will write the words NbrtJi, South, East^West, on the top, bottom, 
and sides of the blackboard to help you in remembering what I 
have just told you. 

Now where shall I draw a line to represent the north end of this 
room ? 

Pupils. Near the top of the blackboard. [The teacher then draws 
a horizontal hue near the top of the blackboard.] 

2'. Where must I make a line to represent the south end of this 
room ? 

P. Near the bottom of the blackboard. [The teacher draws a 
line in the proper position.] 

T. Point toward the east side of the room. "Where shall I draw 
a line to represent that side ? 

P. On the right-hand side of the blackboard. [The teacher 
draws a vertical line on the right-hand side, so as to connect the 
two horizontal lines previously made.] 

r. Point toward tlie west side of this room. "Where shall I draw 
a line to represent that side ? 

P. On the left-hand side of the blackboard. [The teacher makes 
the line in its proper position.] 

T. What shape do these four lines form ? 

P. An oblong, or parallelogram. 

T. Now observe and tell me in which direction this room is 
longer. Does the drawing on the blackboard represent tlie room 
longer from north to south than from east to west? Now take your 
slates and copy the drawing, which I made to represent this room, 
ou your slates. 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— BOUNDARIES AND MARS. 45 

Where did you make the line to represent the north end of the 
room ? On what part of j-our shite did you draw the line to repre- 
sent the east side of the room ? 

Now tell me what part of the room these four lines represent. 
Have we drawn anything to show where the door and windows 
are ? Look at the door and then tell me in which part of the room 
it is. 

Pupils. The door is in the north end of the room, near the w-est 
side. 

Teacher. Then where shall I make marks to show the position of 
the door ? 

Look at the windows and tell me where they are. Where shall I 
make marks to show the position of the windows in this room ? 

We now have a drawing of the walls of this I'oom, and the places 
for the door and windows marked. Now you may place marks 
in the drawings on your slates to show where the door and win- 
dows are. 

Next we will make marks to show where my desk stands; then 
some for the stove ; then some to represent the places for your scats. 

Thus proceed until the drawing on the blackboard represents 
the positions of the principal objects in the room, and then re- 
quire the pupils to copy the same on their slates. 

It might be well to draw an outline of the school-room on the 
floor with chalk, then to select objects to represent the different 
articles of furniture, and request the pupils to place them in their 
relative positions within this drawing. 

Boundaries. — Tmdicr. What parts of the room do the lines 
which I drew on the blackboard to show the shape of this room 
represent ? 

Pujnls. The walls of the room. 

T. How many walls has this room ? Then this room has a wall 
on each of its four sides. These walls are the boundaries of the 
room ; they fix its size. How many walls bound this room ? How 
did I represent these walls, or boundaries, on the blackboard ? 

P. By four lines. 

T. You say that the walls bound a room; now if you should see a 
yard with a fence on each of its sides, what would you say bounds 
the yard ? i 

P. The fence. 

T. Yes, the fences around yards, or the fences or stone walls 



4G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

around fields bound the yards or fields. In the city a square, or 
block, is bounded by streets. So if you wish to make a map or 
drawing of a field, you must draw lines to represent its fences; if 
you w'ish to make a map of a block or square in the city, you must 
draw lines to represent the streets that surround it. 

Play-grounds. — For the next lesson the teacher may show 
the pupils, as before, how to draw a plan or map of the play- 
grounds, or school-yard. The teacher may talk with the pupils, 
and question them somewhat as follows, but of course adapting 
the conversation to the circumstances, objects, etc., which sur- 
round the school : 

You have learned about the school-room, and how to make a 
drawing of it on your slates; now we will make a drawing of the 
play-ground and of the street. Which way from the school-room is 
the play-ground? Which way is the street? Where shall I draw 
the line to represent the north end of the play-ground ? Where the 
line for the south end ? 

Proceed in a similar manner with all the lines for the boundaries; 
then locate the objects of the play-ground, as the swing, the place 
for ball-playing, etc. 

Where is the street? "In front of the school-room." In what 
direction does it extend? " North and south," or " east and west," 
as the case may be. Do any of you live on this street ? Which way 
js your home from the school-room ? Which one of you, who does 
not live on this street, goes along it on his way home from school ? 

Now let us draw this street on the board. You said this street 
was in front of the school-room ; now will you tell me which way 
the front is ? " West." Then the street passes along tlie west side 
of the school-room. In what directions did you tell me it extended ? 
If it extends north and south, how must I place the lines on the 
board to represent it ? " You must draw them from the top to the 
bottom." Now draw them on your slates. 

Does any street cross tlie one which passes by the school-room? 
In what direction does that run ? Which way from us is that street ? 
Do any of you live on it ? If you were going home, in what direc- 
tion would you go ? How shall I represent it on the board ? 

Similar questions may be asked about all the principal streets 
in the vicinity, and each one drawn ; and while doing this, the 
children should be led to observe " relative distances." 



ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— BOUNDARIES AND MAPS. 47 

When tlie pupils become able to make good representations 
of the school-room and play-grounds, as already described, they 
may be taught to represent in a similar manner the streets, build- 
ings, etc., situated near the school ; or, if the school be in the 
country, the pupils may repi'oscnt the boundaries of the fields in 
the vicinity. 

Scale of a Map. — To give the pupils some idea of a 
*' scale of maps," the teacher may draw two maps of the school- 
room on the blackboard — one quite small, and the other about 
four times longer and wider ; then request the pupils to observe 
and tell how they differ. Care should be taken to have the 
pupils notice that the two drawings are alike in shape, and that 
they differ in size only. 

One pupil may take a foot-rule and measure the blackboard, 
to find its length and its width. One pupil may measure one 
side of this class-room, and another one may measure one end 
of it. 

" The blackboard is six feet long and three feet wide." 

" This room is twenty-four feet long." 

" It is eighteen feet wide." 

Draw Class-room by Scale. — Very well; now we will make a 
drawing of this room on the blackboard. Let us make the length 
of it twenty-four inches, and the width eighteen inches; then each 
inch of the drawing will represent one foot of the room. 

"Which cud of tlie room did you measure? "The north end." 
How many feet is it? "Eighteen feet." How many inches long 
must I draw the line to represent this end ? " Eighteen inches 
long." 

Where must I place the line to represent the north boundary of 
any object? "At tlie top of the board." 

Which side did you measure? "The east side." Then where 
must I draw the line on the board to represent the boundary on the 
east side ? " At the right side of the board, from the end of the 
line that represents the north end, downward." 

Where must I draw a line to represent the boundary of the west 
side of the room ? " At the left side of the board, from the end of 
the line that represents the north end." 

How long is the south end of this room ? " Eighteen feet." 



48 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

How long and where must I draw <a line to represent this south 
boundary? "Draw a line eighteen inches long, so that it will unite 
the lower ends of the lines drawn at the sides of the blackboard." 

Now these four lines represent the sides and ends of this room. 
Each inch of the lines represents one foot of the I'oom. 

Let us proceed to represent the position of the door. How can 
we determine where to place the marks that show this place ? 
" Measure and find how many feet the door is from the nearest 
corner." 

" It is on the east side, five feet from the north-east corner ; and 
the door is about three feet wide." 

Then place your marks to show the position of the door three 
inches apart, and five inches from the upper corner on the right- 
hand side. 

In a similar manner the teacher may require the pupils to de- 
termine where to place marks to represent the position of the 
desk, stove, wardrobe, and other objects in the class-room. They 
may copy the drawing of the class-room on their slates, observ- 
ing the correct proportions between the length and width. 

DraTV Play-ground by Scale. — Two or three other lessons 
may be given for illustrating the scale of maps. Pupils might 
take a yardstick and find how many yards long and wide the 
play-ground is ; then draw the form of the play-ground on the 
blackboard, making the boundary lines one inch for each yard. 

Draw the Vicinity of the School. — Draw the block on which 
the school is located; or draw the vicinity of the school, to the 
extent of twenty or thirty rods, and let one inch represent a rod. 

Find Scale of a Map. — Take, a good map of the village or 
city in which the school is located, and teach the children how to 
find the scale upon which it is drawn. Then let them find the 
location of familiar places on the map, and by use of the scale of 
the map determine how far one place is from another. In the 
country a good county or town map would be very valuable for 
teaching the use of maps, and liow tlie places are represented on 
tliem. 



TUE STUDY OF GEOGRAPUY. 49 



GEOGEAPIIY. 

"Knowledge of the nearest things should be acquired first, then that of 
those farther and farther off." — Comenius. 

A KNOWLEDGE of geography must commence with 
things ahout the child's home, and proceed along the line 
of his personal experiences to objects and places more 
distant. The ideas thus gained within the sphere of the 
child's walks, rides, and journeys constitute the known 
by means of which he can acquire a knowledge of more 
distant places and countries. In this manner the young 
learner becomes familiar with the meaning of many terms 
used in geography — as brook, creek, river, spring, lake, 
pond, shore, island, hill, mountain, valley, plain, village, 
city, railroad, etc. — before he is required to learn the 
definitions of these forms of land and water. 

But the limit of the available experiences of the child, 
through his observations of the different features of land 
and water, will be reached within a few months from the 
time that this instruction in the elements of geography 
begins. Then the period will arrive when geography 
must be taken up with a description of the earth as a 
whole, and continued from the shape of the earth as a 
globe to its surface of land and water; its continents and 
oceans ; its islands, plains, and mountains ; its seas, lakes, 
and rivers ; its countries, peoples, animals, and produc- 
tions. Here, again, the child's acquaintance with various 
objects, animals, productions, and people from different 
nations should be employed for enabling the young 
learner to realize that the distant countries are just as 



50 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

real as the most familiar places in the vicinity of his own 
home. 

Geography is the most comprehensive of all the 
branches of school instruction, and may be made the 
most interesting of studies if properly presented ; but it 
will afford very little interest or profit to the pupil so 
long as the method of teaching it requires little else 
than the memorizing of tlie names of rivers, lakes, capes, 
islands, mountains, isthmuses, straits, boundaries, capitals, 
chief towns, etc. 

This study leads the pupil to the consideration of an 
abundance of attractive objects in nature and art; tlie 
diversities of soil, climate, and productions of the earth ; 
the varieties of animals, with their many interesting hab- 
its; the different races and nations, with their varied cus- 
toms, manners, modes of travel, occupations, manufactures, 
and the records of their deeds of valor, and wonderful 
discoveries in the sciences. All of these may be made 
living realities to the young student of geography, by the 
proper use of the experiences of the learner, through the 
exercise of the imagination, a faculty which is exceeding- 
ly active in childhood, and of great service in the proc- 
esses of education. 

In the succeeding pages devoted to this subject I shall 
endeavor to illustrate methods by which lessons in ele- 
mentary geography may be given successfully ; how the 
teacher may proceed when taking up lessons upon the 
earth as a whole, to prepare the learner for gaining use- 
ful knowledge of the world through the study of books. 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GEOGRArHY. 51 



FIRST LESSONS IX ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

"Where to Begin. — Let the first lessons in elementary geog- 
raphy begin with those features of land and water with which 
the children are already most familiar. Find out which features 
they know by a conversational exercise; then proceed by means 
of the known to give them ideas of similar things not so well 
known. Thus it will be seen that for children residing in differ- 
ent places the objects to be considered in these lessons may be 
widely different. Take nature and the experiences of your pupils 
as the guide in determining what to teach, where to commence, 
and how to proceed with your first lessons in elementary geog- 
raphy. 

"When teaching definitions, commence with those forms of 
land or water which the children most frequently see, whether a 
pond, lake, river, bay, island, plain, hill, mountain, or valley. 

Do not commence your teaching of geography with the topic 
given in the first lessons of your text-book, because it is the first 
lesson in the book. Do not even select the same subject that 
you find given here to illustrate the manner of conducting the 
lesson, unless it happens to conform to the experiences of your 
own pupils. 

How to Proceed. — Commence by asking simple questions 
that the children can easily answer, and by means of your ques- 
tions and their replies direct the attention of your pupils to the 
subject of the lesson, and ascertain what they know about it. 
Suppose you select for your first lesson an island, something sim- 
ilar to the following might be your plan of proceeding : 

About an Island. — Cliildrcn, did you ever notice the two beau- 
tiful trees in the middle of the pond which you pass on your way 
to school ? Did any of you ever walk over to those trees and sit 



52 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 




on the green grass in tlieir shade ? Why can you not walk to 
them ? 

"Because the water is deep all around them." 
What do those trees grow on ? 
" On land." 

How could you get to those trees ? 
" By going in a boat." 

What do you call a piece of land witli water all around it ? 
"ylw idancV 

Could there be an island without water? Could there be an 

ishind without land 
or rocks ? What is 
an island ? 

I will make the 
picture of an island, 
and write what an 
island is, on the 
blackboard, and you 
may copy both on 
your slates. 

An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded ly water. 
Who has seen any island besides the one in the pond ? Where 
was the island that you saw ? How many of you have walked ou 
an island ? 

Should your first lesson bo about a lull, you might conduct it 
somewhat as follows : 

About a Hill. — How many in this class have sleds ? What do 
you do with them ? 

"Draw them." "Ride on them." 

When do you ride ou them ? 

" When there is snow on the ground." 

Did you ever ride on your sled without having some one to draw 
it ? How could you do it ? 

You say you rode down a hill ; how did you get on the hill ? 

" Walked up it, and drew my sled." 

How many of you have seen a hill ? How many have ridden down 
a hill on a sled ? What do you call the highest part of the liill ? 

" The top." 

What do you call the part of the hill on M'hich you ride down? 

" Tlie side." 

What do you call the part of the hill where your sled stopped? 

" The bottom of the hill." "The foot of the hill." 



LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 53 

Who -unll tell mc what a liill is ? 

" A liill is a jihice where the land is higher than the land around 
and near it." 

"A hill is a place where the land is elevated above the land 
near it." 

Very well. You may say, J. hill is a small elevation of Innd. 

Now write on your slates what a hill is ; and wliat the highest 
part, and the lowest part, are called ? 

If your first lesson be about a river near your school, the fol- 
lowing questions will suggest the way of proceeding : 

About a River. — Children, how many of you have seen the 
stream of water near the village ? Do you think it a large stream ? 
Is it deep enough for a boat to sail on it ? What is this stream 
called ? 

Did you ever see a small stream of water? Can you tell me what 
a very small stream is called ? Did you ever see the place where a 
hrook commenced ? What is such a place called ? Is the water of a 
sjrring good to drink ? 

[Of course it is expected that the pupils will say something in 
answer to most of these questions. Their answers will suggest other 
questions.] 

How many of you have seen one small stream flow into another 
stream? If many small streams should flow into another stream, 
what would these make of the other stream ? 

Did you ever see a large stream ? What do we call a large, wide 
stream ? How many of you have seen a river ? What was the name 
of the river? Did any of you ever see any other river? Where 
was it ? 

When small streams flow into another one and make that larger, 
we call them hranches of the large stream. Some rivers have a great 
many branches. 

Who can tell me what a river is ? 

" A river is a large stream of water^ 

Very good. What makes a river? 

" Many small streams of icater flowing into one stream.'''' 

We say a river has a liead and a mouth ; which part of the river 
do you think is called the head? No one has given the right 
answer. 

The place ichci'e the river rises, the spring where tlie water first 
comes out of the ground and makes the little stream, is called its 
head. Sometimes this place is called its source ; i.e., the place from 



54 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"which the water first begins to flow. How many of you have seen 
a head of a river, or of a small stream ? 

Now you know where the head of a river is ; can any one tell me 
where to look for the 7nouth of a river? 

Do you know which part of a pitcher is called its mouth ? 

" That part where the water is jjoured out." 

Now which part of the river may be called its mouth ? 

" The place where the water flows out." 

Rivers flow into other rivers, or into a large body of water. The 
place where the river flows into a body of water is called its mouth. 
What is the mouth of a river ? 

What is the land along the sides of a stream or river called? 

" The laiiks or shores.'''' 

Now wlio can tell most about a river — where it begins — what that 
place is called — what makes a river — what the place where it ends 
is called — and what we call the land along its sides. 

1 will now write the best answers on the blackboard, and then 
you may copy them on your slates. 

"A river is a large stream of water. The place where it rises is 
its head. Several streams flowing togetlier make a river. Tlie 
place where it ends is its mouth. The land along its side is called 
the bank or shore." 

About a Plain. — Some of you have seen long level streets, and 
level lots, or fields, on each side of them. If you should go in the 
country where the land was level all around you for a long distance 
each way, you might call such a place a plain. How many of you 
have seen a plain ? What is a jj»Za//i ? 

'■'■ Aplace ichere all the land is level.^'' 

About a Valley. — Wiien you went to the river, a few days 
ago, to see the new steamboat, did you go uphill all the way ? Did 
you go on a level road all the way ? 

You went downhill nearly all tlie way. Did you go downhill 
when you came from the river? When you were by the shore of 
tlie river, could you see the land on the otiicr side ? Did you see 
any hills on the other side of the river? 

Tlien there were hills on both sides of tiie river; and the river 
flows through the low land between the hills. The low laud be- 
tween hills is called a valley. Where does the river flow ? 

"Through the valley." 

Wiiat is"a valley ? 

"J. valley is low land between 7ii7Zs." 



LESSON'S IN ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 



55 




How many of you have seen a valley ? Is this scliool-liouse in a 
valley ? 

About a Mountain. — Did you ever see a very large and high 
hill ^ Did you ever try to cliuib such a hill ? Some hills are very 
large, and so high that it would take you many hours to climb up 
to the top ; and when you reached the 
top you would find many rocks, but no 
trees. The cold wind would blow so 
hard there, even when the day is warm 
at the foot of it, that you would need 
very warm clothing, such as you wear 
in the winter. Sometimes the tops of 
these high liills are covered witli clouds. 
We call such large and high hills mouii- 
ttiins. Did you ever see a mountain ? 

Here is the picture of a mountain, on 
the blackboard. You may copy it on your slate, and write : 

A 7nounUiin is a very high elevation of land. 

About a Lake. — How many of you have seen the lake where 
the boj's go skating in the winter, and the men go fishing in the 
spring ? Does tlie water of the lake flow along, like the water in a 
river ? What is on all sides of the lake ? 

" Land." 

What is a lake ? 

" A Ijody of water surrounded ty land.'''' 

Tell me some difterence between an island and a lake. 

Now tell me how the lake resembles an island. 

I will make a picture of a lake on the blackboard, and you may 
draw it on your 
slate, and write a de- 
scription of a lake. 

A Bay. — You see 
in this picture tliat 
some parts of the 
lake extend into the 
land and then widen 
out. The part where 
the water thus extends into the land is called a Imy. Did you ever 
see a part of a body of water called a bay ? How many bays do 
you see in this picture of a lake? 







5G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

A Cape. — Tlie points of land which extend into tlie lake repre- 
sent capes. A mpe is a ijoiid of land extcndiny into the imter. 

A Harbor. — When a part of a large body of water extends into 
the land, as a bay almost enclosed by land, ships go there for pro- 
tection from a storm; and on the shores of such a place people build 
cities, where the ships can come to unload their goods, and then 
take in a new cargo, or load, to be conveyed to some other city or 
couutr}'. 

A Village. — How many of you have been to the place where 
the boats land, on the river ? What is that place called 'i 

" The landing." " The pier." " The dock." 

Yes, that place has several names, and each of them means the 
same place. A little way back from the landing-place are many 
houses, stores, shops, and several churches. What is that place 
called ? 

"A village." 

How many of you have seen a village ? Are there more houses in 
a village than on a farm ? Why do people live in villages ? 

A City. — Suppose you should go to a place where there were 
a great many streets crossing each other, and houses built along 
both sides of these streets, antl a great many stores, sliops, churclies, 
markets, etc., and many thousands of people lived in that j^lace, 
would you call it a village ? What would you call it ? 

How many of you have seen a city ? Are the streets of a city like 
the streets in the country ? 

In a similar manner proceed to give the pupils definite ideas 
of a railroad, a canal, a strait, an isthmus, etc., until these illus- 
trations embrace all forms of land, and of water, of farms, vil- 
lages, railroads, etc, within the observation or possible experience 
of any pupil in your class. 

When it is found that the experience of one pupil is more 
extended than that of the others, after including all that the other 
pupils have observed, proceed to use the experience of that one 
pupil to teach the others. 

Show pictures, and make drawings on the blackboard to illus- 
trate these lessons, as far as possible ; and encourage the pupils 
to copy the sketches and the descriptions on their slates. 



SHAl'E AND SIZE OF TUE EARTK. 57 



TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF THE EARTH'S SHAPE AND 

SIZE. 

Befoee commencing this lesson, the teacher should pro- 
vide an ample variety of objects for illustrating the shape 
of the earth — such as peas, marbles, balls, oranges, and 
globes of different sizes. 

First Step — Shape. — Lead the pupils to notice that the 
pea and marble are alike in shape — that these represent the shape 
of the hall and the orange. Lead them to notice, also, that while 
the ball and orange have the same shaj)e, they reiyresent the shape 
of the globes. Let thera observe, also, that the pea, marble, ball, 
orange, and globe are alike in shape — that each is a sphere. 
Show a picture of the shape of the earth in a geography. 

Lead the pupils to notice that each of these spheres differs from 
the others in size and in the materials of which they are formed. 

How are the ball and pea alike ? How do they differ ? 

In what are the orange and the globe alike ? How do they diflfer ? 

Second Step — Size. — Remind the pupils that all the 
spherical objects before thera resemble the globes in shajye, and 
that these globes also resemble the shape of the earth, or globe, on 
which we live. Lead them to notice that these objects are like 
each other in shape only, and that the globes are like the earth 
in shai^e only. 

Let them also notice that these objects differ from each other 
in size ; that they differ from the earth in size also ; and that 
they differ from each other in the materials of which they are 
composed ; and they also differ in their materials from the earth. 

This globe which I hold in my hand is like the earth in- shape 
only. The earth is vastly larger than any globe that could be 
built. You could walk around a globe as hvrge as could stand in 

3* 



58 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

this room in less than two minutes ; but you could not walk around 
the earth, even if there was a good path all the way, in tico years. 

A horse usually travels about five miles in an hour when drawing 
a horse-car; if a car track could be built around the earth, it would 
take more than six inonths to ride around it in a horse-car, even if 
the car should move on without stopping night or day. 

If you could procure a kite-string long enough to reach around 
the earth, it would be 25,000 miles long ; and should you try to 
wind it up, it would make a ball larger than the school-house. 

Now I think you understand that the earth on which you live is 
a very, very large ball. It is so large that you can see only a small 
part of its surfoce at the same time. It does not aj)pear to be round 
because it is so large that you can see only a small portion of it; 
yet we know that it is round, for many men have sailed around it. 
They can go around in a ship, somewhat as a fly can crawl around 
an orange. 

Proofs that the Earth is Hound. — 1. People have 

sailed around it. 

2. The body of a ship disappears first when it goes away on the 
sea. The masts are seen longer. A man six feet tall can see a boat 
about three miles distant on smooth water. If a man stands on a 
rock twentj'-four feet high, he may see a boat when six miles distant. 

3. When travelling toward the east the sun rises earlier each day 
— one hour earlier for each 1000 miles travelled. 

4. The earth casts a circular shadow on the moon when the moon 
is eclipsed. 

5. The earth is jiroved to be round from north to south by the 
changes in the positions of the stars in going far toward the north, 
or fiir toward the south. At or near the equator the north star 
would be in the horizon ; at the north pole it would be directly 
overhead. In going south from the equator the stars appear to rise 
up higher and higher, the same as in going north from the equator. 

Let there be frequent review exercises in which the pupils try 
to write some of the important facts of previous lessons. These 
exercises should be informal, not presented to the pupils as ex- 
aminations, Katlier let them be made competitive by requesting 
the pupils to try to write a given number of important facts 
learned during a previous, recent lesson ; say two, three, or five 
facts, as may be deemed suflScicnt by the teacher. 



REPRESENTATIONS OF TUE EARTH'S SURFACE. 59 



REPRESENTATIONS OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE ON 
GLOBES AND MAPS. 

Land and Water. — A few days ago we were talking about 
the shape of the earth. I then told you that this globe was made to 
show you the shape of the earth. Now I wish you to observe that 
its surface is not of the same color in all parts; and that it has on it 
something like pictures. These are intended to show you the shapes 
or boundaries of the land, and of tlie water on the surface of the 
earth. Tliis part, of a light bluish color, represents the water; the 
other parts represent the land. You see there is much more water 
than land upon the earth. 

James may point to parts of this globe that represent water. 
John may point to parts that represent land. 

The large bodies of water rejiresented here are called oceans. Tiie 
large jjortions of land are called continents. These smaller portions 
of land, which are entirely surrounded by water, are called what? 

" Islands." 

Henry may point to something that represents an island on this 
globe. 

William may point to a continent. 

Some i)arts of the land are called valleys, some parts plains, some 
mountains, etc., as you learned in former lessons. 

The water is divided into parts called oceans, bays, lakes, straits, 
rivers, etc. You cannot sec anything on this globe to represent 
the small lakes, streams, mountains, etc., the globe is too small for 
that, so we must use large maps to represent the smaller parts of 
the surface of the earth. 

Now I wish you to notice this large map, with the two large cir- 
cles on it. This map represents the shapes of the bodies of water, 
and of the countries of the world. 

On this left-hand circle you may see two large portions of land 
represented, which are joined together by a very narrow strip of 
land. "Who will find these two bodies of land, and the place wiicre 
they arc joined, on this globe ? 

The two countries here represented, are called North America, and 
South America. We live in tlie one called North America. The 
strip of land which unites these countries is called an ixtlnnns. Of 
what is au isthmus made ? Is it narrow ? What is at each end of 



60 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

an isthmus ? Wliat is on each side of an isthmus ? Can a person 
walk on an isthmus ? What is an isthmus ? 

All isthmus is a stri}) of land that joins two larger j^ortions of land 
together. 

Point to an isthmus on this map of tlie world. Did you ever see 
a real isthmus ? 

Proceed in a similar manner to teach such forms of land and 
water as may be distinguished on both globe and maps. 

How Locations of Countries may be Learned. — 
"When tlic pupils have learned to point out on the map and 
globe the principal forms of land and water that may be distin- 
guished on the globe, proceed with the location of the principal 
divisions or countries of the world, at the same time associating 
them with such people, animals, or productions found in them, as 
may be most familiar to the children. These lessons may be 
given somewhat as follows : 

Yesterday we found the countries called North America, and 
South America, on the map and on the glolie. To-day I wish you 
to find other countries on the map, and on the globe. On the left- 
hand circle of this large map you may see represented large bodies 
of land, and of water. You will notice that portions of the map 
representing land are of different colors. Each color is intended to 
show how much belongs to one country. Now James may come 
and find on the globe the country which I now point at on the 
map. 

Right. This country is called Africa. It is the home of the 
negro race. Most of the people living in Africa are negroes. 

William may now find the home of the negro race on this globe ; 
and Henry may point to it on the map. 

Please to notice the country which I now point out on the map. 
This is the home of the elephant, and of the Chinese ; the country is 
called Asia. 

]Mary may find this countiy on the globe, and Lucy may point to 
it on the map. 

Would you like to have me show you where fire -crackers arc 
made ? I will point to the place, and you must tell me what coun- 
try it is in. 

" Asia." 

That is right, but that part of Asia where fire -crackers arc 



TO LEARN LOCATIONS OF COUNTRIES. Gl 

made is called China. That is where the Chinese live ; aud the place 
■where our tea is raised. Now tell rae the name of somethiug that 
you have seen which came from Asia. 

Now look at the country which I point out on the map. Is it as 
large as Asia ? This country is called Europe. This country is the 
home of the Germans, the French, the English, the Irish, the Scotch, 
the Italian, the Swede, the Dutch, etc. 

Who will find Europe on the globe ? 

Did you ever see any one who has lived in Eurojie? 

George says he can find another large portion of land represented 
on the map ; let him try it. Well done. That country is called 
Australia. It is the home of the kangaroo. Now George may find 
the home of the kangaroo on this globe. 

I am now going to point to the representation of the country 
where the camel, and the giraffe, and the hippopotamus, and the 
gorilla, and the ostrich are found, aud you must tell the name of the 
country. 

"Africa." 

Very good. Lions are found in Africa; and the zehra also. Egypt 
is in Africa; this is the place where the pyramids were built. The 
obelisk in the New York Central Park was brought from Egypt. 

I will point to the country where pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and 
nutmegs grow, and you may tell its name. 

"Asia." 

The country that I am now pointing at is the home of the llama, 
and the place where cocoa-nuts, Brazil-nuts, and india-rubber are 
found. What is the name of this country ? 

" South America." 

The largest river in the world is in South America. This is the 
Amazon river. 

Who can find on the map the country where we live ? What is 
the name of it ? 

This is the home of the Indian, and the hison, and the hear, and 
the turlcey ; and far to the north tlie white bear lives. The country 
there is very cold all the time. No large trees grow there. 

The weather is very cold in the northern parts of Europe and of 
Asia ; and it is also very cold far to the south of Africa, and of 
South America. 

In the northern parts of South America, of Africa, of Australia, 
and in the southern parts of Asia, and of North America, the weather 
is very warm all of the time. 

In the warm countries there are many large trees, and beautiful 
flowers, and birds with fine plumage. 



62 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Review these lessons on the locations of countries by calling 
upon pupils to point them out on the map, and on the globe. 
Let two pupils point out the same country, one on the map, the 
other on the globe ; and require each to name something that 
can be found in the country. 

Let pupils write on their slates all they can remember about 
a country, after the lesson has been given and reviewed. 



MAP DRAWING AS A MEANS OF TEACHING GEOG- 
RAPHY. 

The practice of training pupils to sketcli an outline of 
the boundaries of countries, states, etc., and to represent 
the chief features of each, as a part of the lesson on that 
country, is too much neglected in teaching geography. 
And this neglect leads to the leaving out of the methods' 
of teacliing this subject one of the most valuable means 
of success in learning it. Teaching a pupil to represent 
his knowledge by something done with the hand, is of 
greater importance than teaching him to remember some- 
thing to say about it. He may learn to repeat the words 
■without understanding what they are about ; but he can- 
not learn to represent the form of that which he does not 
know. 

A venerable teacher from whom I received many valu- 
able lessons, used to saj^, " You know it when you can 
show it." This saying is specially appropriate to the 
student of geography. He knows the form and features 
of a country when he can show them by drawing. 

The common qnestion-and-answer method of recitations 
in geography is painfully familiar in too many schools. 
The pupils submit to it as one of the tiresome ordeals in- 
cident to school life. Compare a class of pupils taught 



MAP DRAWING. G3 

by this routine method, with one taught to sketch each 
feature of the country, the boundaries, locations of moun- 
tains, rivers, lakes, towns, and chief productions, and man- 
ufactures. Observe the listlessness of one class and the 
thoughtful attention and active interest exhibited by the 
other, and there can no longer remain a doubt as to which 
is the better way of teaching. 

Accurately drawn mai)s are not necessary for this plan 
of teaching. They must possess sufficient resemblance to 
the true form for any pupil to recognize readily the coun- 
try represented. With this degree of accuracy attained, 
rapidity of execution becomes chief in importance, when 
this sketching process is employed as a method of recita- 
tion, or review of lessons. 

If you have neglected to use map sketching in teaching 
geography because you do not know liow to draw a map 
accurately, do not allow this excuse to still prevent you 
from beginning. A little skill and patience on your part 
will enable you to lead your pupils to do the needed work 
in drawing; while your inability to draw well will pre- 
vent you from doing that which ought to be done by the 
pupils. Your effort should be to teach them to do for 
themselves. If you knew that 3'ou could draw maps well, 
you might try to do too much of the work, and thus 
prevent your pupils from attaining the best results from 
these lessons. Ijy trying to teach map drawing, you will 
learn as well as your pupils. 

How to Commence Map Drawing. — First read care- 
fully what is snid in the lessons on " Place and Direction " about 
representing the position of thuigs on tlie table and in the class- 
room ; and especially the lessons on Boundaries and Maps. Then 
give your pupils similar exercises, and when you find that your 
pupils can draw maps of the school -room, of the play -ground, 
and give the relative location of the streets and buildings in the 



64 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

vicinity, tlicy are ready to proceed -with the drawing of maps to 
represent states, etc. 

Suspend before the class a map of the United States, or of a 
group of states containing tlie one selected to be drawn. If the 
State of Pennsylvania be chosen, proceed somewhat as follows: 
Request the pupils to observe the general shape of the state, and 
to notice which way it is longer; whether the boundary lines are 
straight, or crooked ; which sides are straight, and which are ir- 
regular ; also notice about how many times the width of the state 
could be contained in its length. 

Let each pupil take a slate and draw a line nearly across it, about 
two inclies below the top, to represent the northern boundary of 
the state. Then let each pupil draw a line nearly across his slate, 
far enough below the first line to represent the southern boundary 
of the state. Next let each draw^ a line on the left side of the slate, 
meeting the otlier two lines, to represent the western boundary. In 
doing this lead them to represent the north-western corner of the 
state properly. Now call their attention to the irregular form of the 
eastern boundary. Request the pupils to make two dots to repre- 
sent the two most easterly points in this boundary, and three dots 
to locate the most westerly points in it. Then direct the pupils 
to draw a line so as to pass through all five of these dots. 

The slates may be compared, and the one best drawn selected. 
Request the pupil who drew that to represent the boundaries of the 
state on tlie bhickboard. Then select some of the slates containing 
])oorly drawn maps, and let the pupils compare them with the out- 
line on the blackboard, and point out the defects. 

Tills exercise will be quite enough for the first lesson ; and the 
class will have learned enough of the shape of the state to be able 
to represent it much better, and in one -half the time, at the next 
lesson. 

For the second lesson commence wnth the boundaries again, and 
request one pupil to drav/ them on the blackboard, while the others 
use their slates. Having finished the boundaries, request the pupils 
to tell you what was done after drawing the boundaries of the 
school-room. 

" The position of the objects in the room were represented next." 

Very well. Now we must represent the position of some objects 
in the State of Pennsylvania, within its boundaries. If you could 
look down upon the whole state, as you can look on the floor of this 
room, you would see chains of mountains in some parts, rivers in 



MAP DRAWING. 65 

others, coal mines, and iron mines, and oil wells, and cities, and rail- 
roads, in other places. You may represent the chains of mountains 
first; but, before doing this, look on the map and notice where the 
mountains are, and in which directions they extend. 

The mountains that extend from aljout the middle of the eastern 
boundary toward tlie soutli-west, nearly to the middle of the south- 
ern boundary, are those of the Blue Ridge. Locate these first. 

Next observe the j^osition of the Allegliany range, and locate 
this. Then represent the other prominent mountains of the state. 

Now let the class notice wiiere the largest rivers are, and which 
way they flow, and then represent the Susquehanna, its east and 
west branches, the Juniata, the Alleghany, Mouongahela, and the 
beginning of the Oliio. Next represent the part of Lake Erie that 
touches tlie state on the north-west. 

Then select six of the principal cities, and locate each on the 
map. Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Pittsburgh, Reading, Scranton, and 
Williamsport. 

In the north-western part indicate the region of oil wells ; east 
of the centre of the state, represent the region of coal mines ; and 
indicate the iron mines in the south-eastern and south-western 
portions. 

Tell the pupils to remember that the State of Pennsylvania fur- 
nishes iron for our stoves, coal for our fires, and oil for our lamps. 

They may next notice through what cities the principal railroads 
pass, and represent these by dotted lines. 

The pupils may be requested to draw the same state again from 
observing the map ; and then let them draw it from memory. 
Observing the foUowincr order : 



1. Boundaries. 

2. Mountains. 

3. Rivers. 



4. Cities. 

5. Productions. 
G. Railroads, etc. 



Select another state with regular boundary lines, as Kansas, 
Colorado, Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, and let the pupils proceed 
in a manner similar to the plan used for Pennsylvania. 

Drawing from Dictation. — ^Yhcn the pupils have learned to 
draw maps of several states, request them to draw from dictation. 
Teacher. Draw a map of Connecticut, length of northern boun- 
dary about four inclies. Draw northern boundary, eastern boun- 
dary, western boundary, southern boundarj^, giving an outline of 
Long Island Sound. Represent the Connecticut liivcr, the IIou- 



G6 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

satonic River, the Thames. Locate Hartford, New Haven, Bridge- 
port, Norwich, Waterbury, and two principal raih'oads. 

"When tlie pupils are able to thus represent a state readily from 
dictation, let them try to draw a state in five minutes ; then in 
four minutes; then to see how much they can draw in three min- 
utes. This exercise will lead to a great saving of time in the 
recitations of geography, and secure a permanent knowledge of 
the characteristics of the several states. 

Do not allow your pupils to waste time in tracing 
maps. Train them first to observe the general shape, 
then the relative size of its parts, and form of boundary 
lines, then to represent what they notice, with pencil or 
chalk. 

An excellent review exercise may be had by requesting 
pupils to draw boundaries of a state ; to write names of 
the states which touch it on the north, on the east, on 
the south, on tlie west ; to locate its capital ; three of its 
principal towns. This work should be performed rapidly. 

It will be found valuable in this connection to drill 
the pupils in locating chief commercial cities, in such a 
way as to represent the general direction and relative dis- 
tance of one from the other, as New York, Boston, Phil- 
adelphia, Buffalo, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, San 
F]-ancisco; or Cincinnati, Columbus, Cleveland, Dayton, 
Toledo ; or New York, Albany, Syracuse, Kochester, Buf- 
falo ; or Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee. 

Map drawing may be extended to the continents, and 
to all the principal countries. Valuable suggestions to 
aid in this work may be found in the principal text-books 
on geography. 



IDE.VS OF WEIGUT. C7 



WEIGHT. 

"Things before words," should be an ever-present 
motto with the primary teacher. The remembrance of 
this is of especial importance in developing ideas of 
iceight^ a knowledge of which can be obtained only from 
objects, and through the appropriate sense. Lifting must 
teach the child differences in the loeight of things. No 
idea of this property of objects can be communicated to 
the mind of the child by words alone. The pupil must 
teach himself this subject by his own experiences, or 
forever remain in ignorance of it. 

AVhat, then, is the teacher's function with this subject 
of instruction ? It is to provide suitable materials, and 
the opportunity whereby the child can get the necessary 
experience with things that have weight ; and then to 
guide the pupil in the use of the materials so that he 
may secure the best results in the least time. The teacher 
must instruct the child by directing him how to use tlie 
objects provided in teaching himself. Here, emphatically, 
that which the child does, teaches him. 

For suitable materials to develop ideas of weight, pro- 
vide balls and cubes of the same size but of different ma- 
terials, as cork, wood, yarn, rubber, glass, iron, lead ; also 
cubes and balls made of the same materials, but of differ- 
ent sizes ; also large objects that are light, and small ob- 
jects that are heavy ; small bags of feathers, wool, cotton, 
bran, beans, shot ; four tin boxes of the same size, contain- 
ing respectively one ounce, two ounces, four ounces, and 



C8 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

eight ounces of sliot ; two equal phials, one containing 
quicksilver, the other water ; also four one-ounce weights, 
two two-ounce weights, two four-ounce weights, two eight- 
ounce weights, one pound weight, and a pair of common 
counter scales. 

The following stejis are intended to suggest the order of 
proceeding, and the general plan of instruction appropriate to 
this subject. 

First Step. — The first ideas of weight must be gained by ob- 
serving differences in the weight of objects. 

Second Step. — Next in the order of progress coraes the com- 
parison of weights to distinguish those that are similar. 

Third Step. — Pupils to learn by lifting and weighing to dis- 
tinguish given weights. 



EXERCISES TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF WEIGHT. 
FIRST STEP, FOR OBSERVING DIFFERENCES. 

First Exercise. — Let the pupils lift many objects without 
regard to size or shape, aud notice that they difler in weight. 

Second Exercise. — Let the pupils lift objects of the same 
material which differ mucli in size and in weight. 

Third Exercise. — Let them lift objects of equal size and 
same shape, but of difl'erent materials, aud observe that they difler 
in weight. 

Fourth Exercise. — Let them lift objects, as tin boxes, of 
same shape and size, but ditTering in weight, and thus learn to dis- 
tiuffuish diirereuces. 



EXERCISES IN WEIGHT. CD 



SECOND STEP, FOR COMPARING WEIGHT. 

First Exercise.— Let tlie pupils lift objects, without regard 
to size or sliape, aud tiud two or more of the same weight. 

Second Exercise. — Let them lift large and small objects, 
aud tiud two that difler in size which are alike in weight. 

Third Exercise. — Let the pupils hold one object, and lift 
others to find those that are lighter aud those that are lieavier than 
the one held. 

Fourth Exercise, — Let the pupils take a basin of water, and 
find what objects will sink in it aud what objects will swim. Teach 
them that objects which are heavier than water sink, while those 
which are lighter than water swim. 



THIRD STEP, FOR WEIGHING. 

First Exercise. — Let the pupils take a given weight, as four 
ounces, or half a pound, or one pound, and compare the weight of 
other objects with it by liftiug ; then let them try these on the 
scales to see if the weight of each is the same. 

Second Exercise. — Let them lift an object, judge of its 
weight, then weigh it to test the correctness of the judgment. 

Third Exercise. — Let the pupils take a quarter-'pound weight, 
place it on the scale, and then find how many ounce weights will 
equal it in weight. Let them take a linlf-jyoiind weight, and in the 
same way tind how many ounce weights will equal it. Proceed in 
the same manner to fiud how many ounces equal a i)ound weight. 

Several lessons should be given under each of the preceding 
exercises, which will supply the pupils with enough personal ex- 
perience to develop clearly the special ideas intended to be taught 
by each of the three steps. The pupils should also be encouraged 
to make similar experiments at home, and then tell in school what 
they have learned concerning the given step. At the end of the 
exercises for the Third Step, the pupils will be prepared to learn 
readily and understandingly the tables of toeights. 



70 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHLNG. 



THE NECESSITY OF STANDARD WEIGHTS. 

Teacher. If you should go to the grocery store to buy coffee, tea, 
sugar, and flour, what would you say, in telling how much you 
wanted to get ? 

Pupil. I would tell the clerk to give me a pound of coffee, and 
half a pound of tea. Then, if I wanted some flour and sugar, I 
would tell him to give me ten pounds of flour and seven pounds of 
sugar. 

T. What would the clerk do to find how much he must give you 
of each article? 

P. He would weigh them on the scales. He has half-pound 
weights, pound weights, two -pound weights, five -pound weights, 
and other large weights, and he could use these to find how much 
to give me of each article. 

T. Suppose the grocer liad no scales and no weights, and did not 
know how to weigh, how could he give you what you asked for ? 

P. He could not do it. He must have scales and weights, and 
know how to weigh, or he could not keep a grocery store. 

T. Now you may name all the articles that you can think of that 
the grocer sells by weiglit. 



FACTS ABOUT WEIGHT, FOR THE TEACHER. 

The pnpils liavincj learned by experience with the scale and 
weights that 16 ounces make one pound, 8 ounces one half 
pound, 4 ounces one quarter of a pound, the following table may 
be written on the blackboard and copied by the pupils on their 
vslates, then memorized, so that they can repeat it in order, or 
answer any question as to how much of one weight it takes to 
make another weight. 

COMMON, OR AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

16 ounces make one pound. Si,!;;n : 02. for ounce. 

8 " " one half pound. " l/>. for pouncJ. 

4 " " one C|uarter of a pound. 

100 pounds make one hundred-weight. " cwt. for 100 pounds. 

20 hundred-weight make one ton. 
2000 pounds make one ton. 



FACTS ABOUT WEIGHT. 71 

For pupils who are advanced beyond the simple rules of arith- 
metic, the following tables are given : 

MISCELLANEOUS COMMON WEIGHT. 

7000 grains make one pound. Sign : lb. for pound. 

60 pounds one bushel of wheat. " hmh. for busliel. 

196 " " barrel of flour. " hbl. for barrel. 

200 " " " " beef or pork. 

280 " " " " salt. 

2240 " " old ton, or gross -weight ton. 

100 " " quintal of lish. 

144 " avoirdupois equal lYS lis. troy. 
192 ounces " " lYu oz. " 

1 ounce " " 4o7i grains. 

1 " troy " 480' 

1 grain " " 1 grain avoirdupois. 

1 pound " " 5760 grains. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

Explain the use of this Aveight. Compare the grains, ounces, 
and pounds with those of common weight. Let the pupils see 
that the common pound is heavier than the troy pound, by 1240 
grains; and that the ounce of troy is heavier than the ounce in 
common, or avoirdupois weight, by 42 J grains. 

24 grains make one pennyweight. Sign : diet, for pennyweight. 
20 pennyweights make one ounce. " oz. for ounce. 

12 ounces make one pound. " /^. for pound. 

5760 grains " " " 
480 " " " ounce. 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 

Explain its use for mixing medicines. Lead the pupils to 
notice that the pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in troy 
weight ; that the only difference between the troy and apothe- 
caries' weight consists in the subdivisions of the ounce into 
drachms and scruples. 

20 grains make one scruple. Sign : 9. 

;$ scruples " " drachm. " 5. 

8 drachms " " ounce. " 5. 

12 ounces " " pound. 
480 grains " " ounci-. 
5760 " " '• pound. 



72 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

DIAMOND WEIGHT. 

In this weight the grain is equal to ^ of a troy grain ; and the 
diamond grain is divided into sixteen parts : 

16 parts make one grain. 
4 grains " " carat. 
1 carat equals 3^ grains troy. 

Some idea of the rate at which the value of diamonds in- 
creases as the weight increases may be understood from the fol- 
lowing statement : If a rough diamond weighing one carat is 
worth $9, a cut diamond weighing one carat is worth $36 ; and 
a cut diamond weighing two carats would be worth four times 
$36, or $144 ; one Aveighing three carats, nine times $36, or $324. 
To get an idea of the relative value of diamonds of equal purity 
and different weight, multiply the jrrice of one carat by the square 
of the iveiyltt in carats. 

An Assay Carat means one-twenty-fourth part ; 20-carat gold 
contains 20 parts of pure gold and 4 parts alloy; 18-carat gold 
contains 18 parts of pure gold and 6 parts alloy. 



WEIGHT OF OBJECTS. 

The teacher may give interesting exercises by showing the 
pupils what objects are lighter than water, which are heavier than 
water, and how many times heavier; and thus develop more fully 
ideas as to heavy and light objects. 

Fill a glass jar with water, and place it on a table before the 
class. Put in the water a cork cut in the shape of a cube, also 
pieces of poplar, pine, maple, and oak wood cut in the same shape 
and size. Let the pupils notice whicli sink lowest in the water. 
Try a piece of ice in the same way, and they will see that about 
y'tj- of it will remain above the water. Also, place in tlie water 
objects that are heavier than water, and let the pupils observe 
that some sink slowly, that others sink quickly. 



WEIGHT OF OBJECTS. 



73 



The following tables will furnisli facts that will aid the teacher 
in making experiments, whicli will lead the pupils to gain much 
useful information about the weight of objects : 



COMPAEATIVE WEIGHTS. 



Steam is lighter than gas. 



Gas 


i( 1 


' air. 


Air 


It t 


' cork. 


Cork 


(( ( 


' poplar wood 


Poplar 


H 1 


' pine wood. 


Pine 


(1 < 


' ice. 


lee 


" ' 


' fresh water. 


Fresh w 


ater " ' 


' salt water. 


Oil 


«t t 


' water. 



LIGUTER THAN WATER. 



Steam is about xa^mx ^^ heavy as water. 



Air ' 
Cork 


Woo 


Poplar ' 
Pine ' 


' 1 


Maple ' 
Oak 


< 2 <l U 
'3 


Oil 

Ice ' ' 





HEAVIER THAN WATER. 



Milk is about 1^^ times as heavy as water. 



Coal 


n 


Brick 


2 


Slate " 


23. 


Glass " 


3 


Diamond " 


H 


Garnet " 


H 


Cast iron " 


^h 


Copper " 


8J 


Silver 


lOX 


Lead " 


lis 


Mercury " 


]?,i 


Gold 


i;ij 


Platinum " 


21" 



74 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



METRIC MEASURE. 

This system is now extensively used in eleven countries of the 
world, and is being introduced into the United States. Could 
all the instruction in school pertaining to the tables of weights 
and measures be confined to the metric system, it would save 
about one year in the school life of each pupil who completes 
an ordinary grammar-school course; and could the power of 
habit produced by long use of the present tables be overcome ; 
and could the people be induced to make use of these tables in 
business transactions, the saving of time in business would be 
greater than the saving of time in school. Although so great a 
saving of time would be effected by making all our tables of 
weights and measures as simple as that of our table of money, 
which is part of a metric system, it is not very probable that this 
system will come into general use in this country during the 
present century. 

Its simplicity may be seen in the fact that it is necessary to 
remember only three terms as the key, or units in all the measures 
and weights by this system, for 

All lengths arc measured in metres. 
" capacities " " litres. 

" weights " " grams. 

With the metre every possible dimension — length, surface, so- 
lidity — can be measured; with the litre, every possible capacity; 
and with the grain, every possible weight. 

Parts of each of these three unit measures arc represented 
by the same terms — a tenth, by deci ; a hundredth, by centi ; a 
thousandth, by milli. 

For representing lengths, capacities, or weights greater than 
the unit, each increases by a decimal ratio, as in our mone}^ 
Ten units, a hundred units, and a thousand units, of either meas- 
ure or weight, would be represented by the same terms, thus : 



METRIC NUMBERS. 75 

deka signifies ten of the unit ; hekto, a hundred of the unit ; kilo, 
a thousand of the unit; and myria, ten thousand of the unit ; 
hence ten metres would be called a dekametre ; ten litres, vt. deka- 
litre ; ten grams, a dekagram ; and a hundred metres would be a 
hektometre ; a thousand litres would be a kilometre ; ten thousand 
grams would be a myriagram. 

In the same manner a tenth of a metre would be a decimetre ; 
a hundredth of a litre would be a centilitre; a thousandth of a 
gram would be a milligram. 

These terras may be abbreviated in use to decim, centim, mil- 
Urn ; or dekam, hektom, kilom, viyriam. 

COMPLETE METEIC TABLES. 

Dollar is a measure of values. i Litre is a measure of capacities. 
Metre " " " " luugtlis. | Gram " " " weights. 



Bed means tenth. 
Centi " hundredth. 
Milli " thousandth. 

Myria means ten thousand 



Deka means ten. 
ILldo " hundred. 
Kilo " thousand. 



How to Head Metric Numbers, — When wc write 9 

eagles, 5 dollars, 7 dimes, 5 cents; wc read it, 95 dollars 75 cents. 
When we write 7 kilom, 2 heldom, 8 dekam, 6 metres, 3 decim, 5 c<!n- 

tim; we read it, 7 thousand 2 hundred, 86 metres and 35 hundredths. 
When we write 8 myriagrams, 5 kilograms, 3 hektograms, G dcka- 

yrnms,4: grams, ^ decigrams; we read it, 85 thousand 3 hundred and 

64 grams, and 5 tenths. 

For addition or subtraction, write the figures the same as in 

United States money. 

$386 25 »!.38G 25 g.Z^& 25 

27 10 27 10 27 20 

148 75 148 75 148 75 

54 30 54 30 54 30 

$616 50 ?/(.016 50 ^«7.616 50 

These answers may be read as follows : six hundred sixteen dollars 
and fifty cents; six hundred sixteen metres and fifty hundredths; 
six hundred sixteen grams and fifty hundredths. 

Subtraction, multiplication, and division in the metric system 
would be performed the same as in United States money. 

The abbreviations are simple, m., I., g., for metre, litre, gram ; d., c. 



70 MANUAL OP OBJECT-TEACHING. 

for deci, centi ; d., h., k., in., for deka, hekto, kih, myria; dm. for deci- 
metre; Dm. for dekametre. 

Values of Metric Quantities.— A metre is one ten-mill- 
ionth of the distance from the equator to the pole, or nearly 40 
inches. 

A litre is a cubic tenth metre (decimetre), and is about equal to 
our quart. 

A gram is the weight of a cubic hundredth metre (centimetre), of 
Avater ; and is about ^ of an ounce. 

Four steps equal about three metres. 

The width of the hand is a decimetre ; and the widtli of a finger 
two centimetres. 

Our nickel Jive -cent coin weighs Jive grams; its diameter is two 
cen timetrcs. 

Our three-dollar gold coin weighs Jive grams; and two silcer dimes 
weigh nearly five grams. 

Our gold dollar equals more ihixn Jive francs of the French money, 
or 5.1826 francs. 

In the use of the metric system, carpets would be measured by 
metres ; long distances by kilometres ; short lengths by decimetres, as 
lengths from four inches to the length of tlie metre ; and lengths 
less than four inclies by centimetres, or inillimetres. 

Measure liquids, small fruits, etc., by litres; fruits and vegetables 
in quantities larger than our peck by dekalitres, or hcktoUtres; wines 
and other liquids in large quantities like our barrel, in hektolitrcs. 

Weigh medicines and small articles by grams; sugar, flour, coal, 
hay, by kilograms. A thousand kilograms ia about one ton. 

Measure surfaces by .square metres, square centimetres, etc. Meas- 
ure solids, as wood, etc., by cuhic metres, cul/ic centimetres, etc. 



METHODS FOR ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN FORM. 77 



FOEM. 

ADDITIONAL METHODS FOR ELEMENTARY LESSONS. 

Teachers learn by experience that success in training 
pupils to understand a subject depends very much upon 
ability to present the lessons in different ways ; and upon 
furnishiug something for the pupils to do by way of 
showing that they understand each fact stated, and notice 
each step taken. Those who teach large classes especially - 
need to be familiar with a great variety of methods for 
bringing the same subjects before their pupils, to keep up 
the interest of each until all understand the lesson. 

For the purpose of adding to the variety of methods of 
teaching Form, as given in the Primary Ohject Lessons, 
the following suggestions are presented. These methods 
arc not intended as substitutes for those in that book, but 
as additions thereto ; and while intended partly as ways 
for reviewing those lessons, their chief purpose is to fur- 
nish a greater variety in the modes of teaching Form. A 
leading idea pervading these methods is that each pupil 
in a large class shall be constantly supplied, during the 
entire exercise, with something to do. 

Lines. — Having given the pupils ideas about kinds and po- 
sitions of Hnes, place in tlie liands of each pupil two small spUnt- 
hke sticks of equal length — such as are used for lighting lamps. 

1. If the class is composed of quite young pupils, let their 
first exercise be the holding of splints in imitation of the teacher, 
as she represents the position and gives its name, somewhat as fol- 



78 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

lows, viz. : "vertical position;" "horizontal position;" "oblique 
position;" "perpendicular position;" "parallel position." 

2. As the second step the teacher may draw lines on tlie black- 
board representing each of the positions illustrated before, and 
request the pupils to name it when drawn, and represent it with 
the splints, 

3. For a tJiird step the teacher may name the ])ositlons with- 
out representing them by lines, and require the pupils to represent 
each with splints, as the name is given. 

Angles. — Having given one or two lessons on angles, as 
described in the Primary Object Lessons, distribute the splints, 
giving two to each pupil. Let all the pupils imitate the teacher 
as she represents each angle with splints, and names it. 

Next draw each angle on the blackboard, and request the pupils 
to name them, as drawn ; also represent them with the splints, 
held by the thumb and forefinger, at the angle. 

For a change in the exercise the teacher may name each angle, 
and all the pupils represent it v.dth splints or with their fingers. 

Plane Forms. — When the pupils have had lessons on the 
square and oblong, provide them with each shape cut from strong 
paper — manilla paper is best for this purpose. 

First. — The teacher may hold up one of these forms, and re- 
quest all the pupils to hold up a like shape and to give its name. 
The teacher may hold up the other form, and the pupils do as 
before. 

Second. — The teacher may name each form, and request all 
the pupils to hold it up as the name is given. 

Change this by asking the pupils to hold up a form that has 
tioo equal long sides, and point to these sides. Then ask them to 
hold lip the forni that has four equal sides; then the one that 
has two equal short sides. Let them count the right angles of 
each form. 

Square and Rhomb. — Give an exercise with the square 
and rhomb, as with the square and oblong. Request the pupils 



METHODS FOR ELEMENTARY LESSONS LN FORM. 79 

to find wbcrcin the square and rliomb are alike ; also wberein 
each differs from the other. 

Rhomb and Rhomboid. — Give each pupil a paper rhomb 
and rhomboid, and proceed as with the last two exercises. 

Triangles. — Triangles may next be taken ; usinsf the right- 
angled, acute-angled, and obtuse-angled triangles. AVben the pu- 
pils can readily state and point out the distinguishing parts of 
each of these triangles, give a similar exercise with equilateral, 
isosceles, and scalene triangles. 

These exercises may be changed by requesting the pupils to 
fold or cut pieces of paper at home to represent the forms of a 
lesson, after the school exercise has been had. The paper forms 
thus made should be brought to school the next day for the 
teacher to examine ; and the best forms may be shown to the 
class and commended ; while the poorer ones may be used for 
pointing out the mistakes made. But this should be done with- 
out allowing the pupils to know whose form is criticised. 

Circles, etc. — Provide forms of paper representing circles, 
semicircles, rings, crescents, ovals, and ellipses, and give exercises 
similar to those with the square, rhomb, etc. Lead the pupils to 
notice the difference between the semicircle and the crescent; 
also between the oval and the ellipse. 

Polygons. — During a later stage of instruction, similar ex- 
ercises may be given Avith the polygons — pentagon, hexagon, hep- 
tagon, octagon, etc. 

Folding Squares. — Give each pupil a paper square, and 
request the class to fold the paper so as to make an oblong; 
then to fold it again, so as to make a small square. 

Next, having unfolded tlje papers, let them fold the square so 
as to make right-angled triangles. Then let them toll how it was 
folded, as, " Folding a square through its centre from corner to 
corner will make a right-angled triangle." 



80 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

Thon let them fold this triano-le again, and make a smaller 
right-angled triangle. Lead pupils to notice that in the folding 
of the triangle it is " folded from the middle of the long side to 
its opposite corner." 

Folding an Oblong. — In a similar manner teach the pu- 
pils to fold oblongs into other oblongs, also into squares and into 
triangles. 

Folding Rhombs. — Let the pupils fold a rhomb through 
its centre and the nearest opposite corners, and make equilateral 
triangles. 

Folding Equilateral Triangles. — Fold the equilateral 
triangle from the middle of one side to its opposite corner, and 
make right-angled triangles. 

Let the pupils also fold rhomboids, and notice what kind of 
triangles can be made. 

Folding Circles. — First fold circles so as to make semicir- 
cles ; next fold into quadrants. Let the pupils notice how many- 
quadrants can be made from one circle. 

Fold the circles into six equal parts — call these sectors ; let the 
pupils compare the shape and size of these with quadrants. 

Fold the circle into eight equal parts ; count the sectors ; com- 
pare them with quadrants. 

Request the pupils to cut and fold these forms at home. 



REVIEWING LESSONS IN FORM. 81 



KEVIEWING FORM LESSONS. 

Good methods of teaching provide for reviews of each 
subject taught, to gather up and fasten the important 
facts in the pupil's mind. The real progress of the learn- 
er can be determined only by such a review as will show 
what the pupil retains of the subject, and what mental 
powers have been strengthened by his attention to that 
subject. 

In conducting the review the intelligent teacher \vill 
use such metliods of testing the amount of knowledge 
acquired, and tlie learner's ability to think upon the sub- 
ject, as will ])reveiit the giving of answo's in formal, 
memorized phrases. 

The review should not attempt to cover the minute 
particulars embraced in the processes of instruction, but 
aim rather to ascertain what essential facts have been se- 
cured by the pupil ; and thus prepare for extending the 
instruction upon the same or a kindred subject. 

It is very important that the review should be as brief 
and comprehensive as the circumstances will permit, with 
due attention to the essential facts. The review should 
take place as each successive stage of the subject, or 
period of instruction, is completed. 

For the f urtlier illustration of this matter it is proposed, 
in this connection, that a review be had of the lessons 
which are outlined in the Primary Ohject Lessons under 
the head of Form; and that tliis review shall be prepara- 
tory to subsequent and advanced lessons upon the same 
subject. 

In order to suggest methods by which teachers may 

determine whether tlie pupils have obtained real knowl- 

4-x- 



82 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

edge concern iTig the object or lesson, or have learned only 
words about it^ the following questions and directions are 
presented as suggestive of a mode of testing the result 
of the instruction ; but these are not given for the teach- 
er to follow literally. In every instance the questions 
or the directions should be adapted by the teacher to the 
condition and circumstances of the pupil, and be sug- 
gested chiefly by his ]H"evions answer to a question or 
by liis statement upon the subject under consideration. 

REVIEW EXERCISES. 

Lines, and their Positions.— Hold a string so as to rep- 
resent a straight line. 

Hold ti string so as to represent a curved line. 

Draw straight and curved lines on your slate. 

What kind of line does the cord represent when it is wound 
around a top ? 

Place a string on the table so that it will represent a spiral line. 

In what position is the kite string when tlie kite is high in the 
air? 

Hold two pencils so as to represent parallel lines. 

Draw vertical, oblique, and horizontal i)arallel lines on your slate. 

Hold one pencil perpendicular to another pencil. 

Hold a pencil perpendicular to the side of the desk. 

Angles. — Take two pencils and represent an acute angle; a 
right angle; an obtuse angle. 

If you should cut a circular pie into four equal parts, what angles 
would be formed ? 

If a pie be cut into three equal pieces, Avhat kind of angle would 
each piece have ? 

If a pie be cut into six equal pieces, what kind of angle would 
each jjiece have ? 

If one boy had a piece of pie with an obtuse angle, another a 
piece with a riglit angle, and another a piece with an acute angle, 
which boy would have the largest piece of pie, and which the 
smallest piece ? 

Plane Forms. — How many lines must you make in drawing 
a square ? 



REVIEW EXERCISES. 83 

How many lines in a triangle ? 
How many lines in an oblong ? 
Could you make an oblong with four aixxal sides ? 

Triangles. — When all the sides of a triangle are equal, wLat is 
the name of it ? 

How many right angles can a triangle have ? 

How many obtuse angles can a triangle have ? 

If a triangle has one right angle, or one obtuse angle, what must 
the other two triangles be ? 

How many acute angles 7nust each triangle have ? 

How many acute angles has a right-angled triangle ? 

How many acute angles has an acute-angled triangle ? 

How many has an isosceles triangle ? 

What kind of angles has a scalene triangle ? 

How would you cut a square in half so as to make two triangles ? 

nhomb. — If you should draw a plane figure with four equal 
sids, two acute, and two obtuse angles, what woul d be its shape ? 
Where is the difierence between a square and a rhomb ? 

Polygons. — What kind of angles do pentagons, hexagons, hep- 
tagons, octagons, etc., have ? 

Oval. — What is the difference between an oval and an ellipse ? 
How could a hard-boiled egg be cut so as to represent an oval ? 
Try it at home. 

Circle. — IIow could a boiled egg be cut so as to represent a 
circle ? 

How could you cut a circle from an apple ? Try it. 

If you cut a circle in lialf, what will be the shape of each part? 

What have you eaten that had the shape of a circle ? of a square ? 
of an oblong ? 

Solids. — Could you make a cube of an apple ? of a piece of 
cake ? of a slice of bread ? 

How would you make it ? 

[Ans. Cut it so that it would have six equal square sides.] 

Did you ever eat a cube ? What was it made of? What would 
you like to have a cube made of if you must eat it ? 

If you should cut a slice from the side of a cube, what would be 
the shape of the slice ? 



8-i MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Did you ever eat a sphere ? What was it made of? 

Did you ever eat a cylinder ? 

Could you make a cone of something good to eat ? 

Did you ever eat anything of the shniw of an ovoid? 

Could you cut a square prism from a slice of bread-and-butter ? 

Could you make a pyramid from a potato ? What is the shajie 
of the sides of all pyramids? 

Could you make a sphere from a hard-boiled egg'^. How would 
you make a hemisphere from an orange ? How many hemispheres 
could you make from a very large orange ? 

If you break a cylindrical stick of candy in half, what will be the 
shape of each piece ? 

What shape are the sides of all prisms ? 

What shape must the base of a cube have ? 

Can a cylinder have a square base ? 

If a prism has six equal oblong sides, what must be the shape of 
its ends ? 

The foregoing questions and directions will suggest 
many others for reviews. The questions for this purpose 
should be so formed as to lead the pupils to discover new 
facts and relations in the lessons on Form. 



ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 

Point. — Make a small dot on your slate. You may call that dot 
Vi. 'point. Has the point length? Has the jioint breadth ? Has the 
point thickness ? 

A point has neither length, h'eadth, nor thichicss. It has position 
only. A point has no magnitude or dimension. 

Line. — Make two points on your slate. Draw a line from one 
point to the other. Has the line length? Has the line breadth? 
Has the line thickness ? 

A line has neither hreadth nor thichiess. It has length only. A line 
is a magnitude of one dimension. 

Surface. — Make four points on your slate to rei)resent the four 
corners of a square. Draw lines so as to connect tiiese dots. Move 



ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 85 

your finger from one side to the other of this square ; move it from 
the top to the bottom of the square. That part >vithin these lines 
is the surface. Has the surface length ? Has the surface breadth ? 
Has the surface thickness? 

A surface has length and 'breadth. It has no thichiess. A surface is 
a magnitude of two dimensions. 

Figure. — A form that is represented l^y a plane surface is called 
a figure. The size and shape of a figure are determined by lines. 

Boundary. — How many straight lines form the sides of this 
square ? How many straight lines has the triangle ? How many 
lines has the circle ? 

The lines that form the sides of plane fgures are the BOUNDARIES 
of those figures. 

The boundaries of a triangle, a square, or rhomb are called its 
sides. The boundary of a circle is its circumference. 

How many boundaries has a triangle? How many has a square ? 
How many has a rhomb ? How many has a pentagon ? How many 
has an octagon ? 

Linear Figures. — Figures that are bounded by lines are 
called linear fgures. What is the least number of lines that will 
bound a linear figure ? What kind of line must be used ? 

What is the least number of straight lines that will bound a linear 
figure ? 

What linear figures are bounded by two lines? (Semicircle, seg- 
ment, crescent.) Ilepresent a figure bounded by two lines. 

Make three diff'erent figures, each I)ounded by one line, and write 
the name of each figure in it. {Circle., oval, ellipse.) 

Make a figure bounded by two curved lines, and write its name. 

Quadrilateral. — Figures that have four sides or Ijoundaries are 
called quadriluteruls; as square, rhomboid, trapezium, trapezoid, etc.* 

Parallelogram. — Figures that have their opposite sides paral- 
lel are axWedi parallelograms; as, squares, oblongs, rhombs, rhomboids. 

Polygon. — Figures that have more than four sides are called 
p>ohigons.^ Eegular polygons have equal sides, and equal angles. 
Make six kinds of quadrilaterals, and write the name of each. 

•-• See Primai-y Object Le.isons, pp. 97, 99, 101, 103. t Ibid. , pp. 103, 104, 105. 



8G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

Make four kinds of parallelograms, and write the name of each. 

Make sis difiering figures each bounded by three lines, and write 
their names. 

AYhen may we call a plane figure with two equal acute, and two 
equal obtuse angles a rhomb ? 

What form may be produced from a rhomb by so changing its 
angles as to make them all equal ? 

How many squares can you draw around a single square, so that 
one side of each shall be bounded by one of the sides of the single 
square ? Try it. 

How many squares can you place around one square, so that it 
shall be touched by each square ? 

Diagram. — "When a plane form is spoken of with regard to its 
sha]ic,it is called a figure. "When several lines are arranged so as to 
represent two or more combined figures for the purpose of illustra- 
tion, it is called a diagram. 

Draw a figure on your slate. 

Draw a diagram on your slate. 

Circle and its Parts.*— Direct the pupils to draw six cir- 
cles on their slates with a string and pencil. "Write above them the 
name of the figures ; and write around the first circle the name of 
the houndnry, and in the circle the name of the 2}oint in the middle. 

Divide the second circle into two equal parts, and write the name 
of the i^arts on one of them. 

Divide the third circle into four equal jjarts, and write the name 
of the parts on two of them. 

Draw a line on the fourth circle to represent the greatest distance 
across it, and write the name of it on tlie line ; also, 
draw another line half the distance across the circle, 
and write its name on it. 

Draw lines in the fifth circle to represent a sedoril) 
and a segment{2), and write the name in each. 
Draw lines on the sixth circle to represent a chord{^) and an rt?-c(4), 
and write the name by each. Lead the i)upils to notice 
the differences between a sector and a segment; also be- 
tween a chord and an arc, and to point out each. 

Request the pupils to state what is represented in 
each circle. Lead them to notice that all the diame- 
ters of the same circle are equal; that all the radii of tlie same cir- 

* See rrimary Object Lessons, pp. 100, 108, 111-114. 






ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORil. 87 

cle are equal ; and that the radius is always half of the ^ \ 
diameter. /i\^l/'^\ 

Lead them also to notice that the chord of the arc of Ij/'T^-^ 
a sextant of any circle equals the radius of tliat circle. V. l^-:>/ 
The dotted lines represent the cliord of the arc, in tliis 
cut. Let the pupils prove tliis equality -with a pair of coniprisses. 

Sextant. — Draw a circle and divide it into six equal parts, or 
sectors. Each of these parts may be called a sextant. 

If a circle be divided into eight equal parts or sectors, each part 
may be called au octant. 

Tangent. — Draw a circle; then draw a straight 
line so that it will pass the circle, just touching its cir- 
cumference. This line is called a tangent. The radius 
of the circle forms a right angle with the tangent. 

Degrees. — Every circle contains 360 degrees. 

When a circle is divided into four equal parts, what is each part 
called ? 

How many degrees has the curved side of each quadrant? 

ITow many degrees has each right angle ? 

"Which contains more degrees, a right angle or an obtuse angle ? 

That which any angle lacks of being a right angle, /. e., that which 
it lacks of 90 degrees, is the complement of the angle. 

What part of a circle is 90 degrees? What part is 45 degrees? 
What part is 180 degrees? 

How many degrees would an object elevated 75 degrees lack of 
being vertical ? 

The sum of three angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. 

Eacli of the angles of au equilateral triangle is one-third of 180 
degrees, or 60 degrees. 

Concentric Circles.— When one or more cir- 
cles having the same centre are drawn within a circle, 
they are called concentric circles. 

Make two concentric circles. Draw four concentric 
circles. Are any two of the circles in the same con- 
centric circles of the same size ? Do two of the circles have the 
same centre ? 

Eccentric Circles. — When two circles, one 
within the other, have not the same centre, ihcy are call- 
ed eccentric circles. ]\Iake eccentric circles. 





88 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



About Angles.— The length of the lines that form an angle 
can in no way atiect the size of the angle. The size of an angle 
is determined by the size of the opening between the lines, or the 
difference in the direction of the two lines. Illustrate this with a 
pair of scissors and by lines on the blackboard. 

Two right angles are equal to each other. Draw two, and let the 
jiupils compare them. 

All the angles formed on the same side of a straight line, by other 
lines meeting at the same point, are equal to two right angles. Show 
this fact by drawing a straight line, and, from a point near the centre, 
extend lines so as to form angles of different sizes, and let the pupils 
see that all the angles thus made occupy the same space as two right 
angles — that they are equal to only two right angles. 

If one straight line meet another straight line, the sum of the two 
adjacent or joining angles equals two right angles. Lead the pupils 
to see this fact by drawing such lines and angles on their slates. 

Triangles. — The three angles of a triangle equal two right 
angles. 

How many equilateral triangles can be placed together so that a 
point of each shall touch a point of all the others ? Cut equilateral 
triangles from thick paper, and let the pupils find an answer to this 
question ; and observe svhat form will be thus produced. 

The largest triangle that can be drawn within a circle is an equi^ 
lateral triangle. Let the pupils try to draw it on tlieir slates. 

Tiie area of a circle inscribed in an equilateral triangle is one- 
fourth of the area of a circle circumscribed about the same triangle. 

The area of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle is one- 
fourth of the area of an equilateral triangle circumscribed about the 
same circle. 



Squares. 





^^ ''^ 


^ ^ 


^ "^ 


/ ■^ 


/ 1 \ 




1 \ 


/■ 1 ^ 


•^ "^ 


/ N 


^ ■^ 


/ ^ 


X 1 N 


/ 


«> - — 




\ 


/ 


\ 


^/ 


\ 


/ 


\ 


/ 


\ 




\ 




In 


/ 



1. A square drawn on the diagonal of another square 
is just twice as large as the first square, 
llepresent this foct by drawing two such 
squares; and let tlie pupils learn it by 
drawing squares on the diagonals of 
other squares. 

2. A square drawn within another 
square, so that its corners shall touch tlie 
middle of the sides of the outer one, will 
be just half as large as the outer square. 
Illustrate this fact by folding a paper 
square as represented by the dotted lines 



ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 



89 





in this figure, so that the corners of the outside squ.are shall meet in 
the centre of the small one. 

3. A square drawn outside of a circle, so that the centre of each 
side of tlie square shall touch the circle at four opj^o- 
site points, will be just twice as large as another square 
drawn within the same circle so that its comers shall 
touch four points of the circle. 

Illustrate this by drawing a circle circumscril)ed liy 
a square ; and another circle of equal size, with an enclosed square. 

4. The size of a square drawn on the 
hvpotheuuse of a right-angled triangle 
equals the size of the squares drawn on 
the other two sides of the triangle. 

Illustrate this by drawing squares on the 
sides of a right-angled triangle ; and let 
the pupils make the illustration on their 
slates, and count the squares of the base 
and perpendicular together ; then count 
those of the hypothenuse. 

How to Find Areas. — A square Avhose side measures one 
inch is called a square inch. The c(rca of such a square is a square 
inch. The area, of a square whose side is two inches is four square 
inches. 

The area, in square inches, of any rectangular form may be found 
by multiplying the number of inches in its length by the number in 
its breadth. 

Find the area of a figure whose sides ai'e 5 inches and 9 inches. 

What is the area of a square which measures twelve inches on 
each side ? 

144 square inches make one square foot. /S/w?r,by a diagram, how 
many square inches there are in three square feet. ^ 

Show how many square feet there are in one square yard. 

Which is larger, a piece of paper containing cigid square inches, or 
a piece of paper eight inches square? Represent the diflerence on the 
blackboard. 

Is one square foot larger than one foot square ? 

Which is larger, four square feet, or four feet square ? 

Let ijupils represent the diftereuce between them by making dia- 
grams on their slates. 



To find the area of a triangle, multiply tlie length of its base 
by one-half of its height. 



90 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Measuring Circles, etc. — Take a hoop, measure its diame- 
ter with a string, phice this string on the outside of the lioop and 
see liow many times its lengtli will be n^quired to go around it. 

Three times its lengtli will not reach quite around. Nol)ody 
knows or can find out exactly liow many times further it is around a 
circle than across it; but the proportion between the circumttTeucc 
and diameter is about 22 to 7, so that about 31 times the diameter 
will equal the circumference. But if you wish to be more exact, 
observe the following rule : 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply its diameter by 
3.1416. 

If you know the circumference of a circle and want to find its 
diameter, use the following rule : 

To find the diameter of a circle, multiply its circumference by 7, 
ami divide the product by 22. 

Give the pupils examples to apply these rules. Let them find the 
circumference of a plate whose diameter is seven inches ; of a wheel 
whose diameter is nine feet. Let them find the diameter of a wheel 
whose circumference is twenty-two feet; of a log whose circumference 

is sixteen feet. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the circumference by one- 
half of the radius. 

Let the pupils try this with a circle whose radius is five feet ; with 
one whose diameter is eight feet. 

Find the area of a circle by multiplying the diameter by itself, 
then multiplying this product by l of ^^, or \^. 

Let the pupils prove these two rules by finding the area of a circle 
wliose diameter is six feet. 

Which pie would be larger, one of six inches in diameter, or one 
of sixteen inches in circumference ? 

HO'W to Dra'W an Ellipse. — Drive two pins into a board 
about three inches apart ; fasten the ends of a string about six 
inches long to these i^ins, then put a pencil inside the string, stretch 
it out and move it around, marking a line with the pencil ; or make 
a loop six inches long, place it around the two pins, put the pencil 
inside of the loop, stretch it out and move it around tlie pins, mark- 
ing as it moves. In a room of the shape of an ellipse, a person 
standing in one focus — a point corresponding to one of the pins — 
could hear distinctly the whisper of a person at the other focus. 





ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 91 

Foci. — Tlie points where the pins are placed 
are ihc foci ol'the elli})se. When the foci are near 
each other, tlie ellipse is nearly a circle. The orljit 
or path of the earth around the sun is of the form 
of an ellipse, and one of the foci represents the 
position of the sun within the orbit. Planets have similar orbits. 

Axis. — A line drawn lengthwise of the ellipse, 
througia the foci, is called the major axis. A line 
drawn crosswise of the ellipse through its centre, per- 
pendicular to the major axis, is called the minor axis. 

To find the area of an ellipse, multiply one-half of the two axes 
together, and that product by 3.141G. 

A Cycloid is the path of a point in the circumference of a 
wheel rolling on a level surface. Take a large spool, stick a pin 
in one end near the edge, roll the spool slowly on 
the table and the path of the pin will be in the form 
of a cycloid. 

Now, if you could turn the ci/cloid upside down, 
the inside of the curve would represent the line of 
swiftest descent. If a Iiill was hollowed out in tliis 
shape, sleds would slide down it faster than they 
could down a hill of any otlier shape of the same height. This is 
the line which the eagle makes in his swiftest descent. 

Catenary. — Suspend a small chain between two posts, and the 
curve it forms is called a catcnavy. A loosely hung clothes-line, and 
the curve in the jumping-rope as it is swung, rejiresent the catenary. 
If a chain made in the form of the one inside of a watch, and sus- 
pended at each end so as to form the catenary, the curve might be 
turned upside down, and it would stand without falling in. This 
curve represents the shape of the strongest possible arch for a 
bridge. 

Solids. — Look at the cube. IIow many faces has it? Height 
or thickness is the distance l>etween the top and bottom. Breadth 
is the distance between the loft and the right side. Lengtii is the 
distance between the front and the back. lias the cube thickness or 
height? Has the culje breadth ? lias the cube length ? The cube 
is a solid. 

A solid has thiclnrss or lieight, hreadth aiul length. A solid is a mag- 
nitude of three dimensions. 



92 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

Solid Angle. — How many surfaces has this cube? Point to 
three surfaces that meet in a corner. A corner wiiere three surfaces 
meet is a solid angle. How many solid angles has a cube ? How 
many solid angles has a square prism ? How many solid angles has 
a triangular prism ? 

Other Facts. — Many interesting facts may be brought before 
the pupils in these lessons on Form, which will awaken a taste for 
the study o^ geometry, ivad prej^are them for understanding it. The 
teacher should watch for favorable opportunities for Ijringing these 
facts to their attention, so that they may be presented in answer to, 
or explanation of, questions asked by the pupils. Sometimes this 
opportunity may be found by the teacher making statements or ask- 
ing questions, somewhat like the following : 

A man had a window a yard square, which let in too much light ; 

he covered up one-half of it, and still had a square window a yard 

high and a yard wide. How did he do it ? [See Squares, P^ige 88.] 

Can you place nine trees in ten rows, with three trees in each row ? 

Can you show by cutting a turnijj which is greater, two inches solid, 

or tiDo solid inclies? 

Draw a figure of luilf afoot square, and another of half a square 
foot, and see which is larger. 

Show how many cubes can be made to touch one point. 
Show how many liexagons you can place around another hexagon, 
so that each shall touch the central one. 

Can the figure formed by these three squares l)e 
divided into four equal jiarts of the same shape ? 

If you had two balls to be covered, one two inclies 
in diameter, the other six inches in diameter, how 
much more leather would it take to cover one than 
to cover the other ? 
[Notice how many times the diameter of one is contained in that 
of the other. The square of this number will show how many times 
as much it will take to cover the large ball as it will to cover the 
small one. The diameter of one is three times that of the other; the 
square of three is nine. It will take nine times as much.] 

Axiom. — A truth that is self-evident, needing no proof; as two 
lines may be drawn of the same length. 

Postulate.— A truth too plain to need proof. A thing so sim- 
ple tliat no douljt appears that it can be done; hence we are asked 
to take it for granted that it can be done. 



j — 




1 


i 







SUGGESTIONS FOK TEACHING COLOR. 93 



COLOR. 

ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING COLOR. 

The great progress made during the past twenty years 
in matters pertaining to the nature and relations of colors, 
and the results of experience with color as a matter of 
school instruction, show the great importance of giving 
careful attention to the following points concerning this 
subject : 

First. Training children to distinguish, match, and 
name colors, as the means of developing the iKrception of 
colors. 

Second. Ascc7'tai7iing, hy means of this training^ lohich 
2)upils,if any, are color-Wind in regard to either red, green, 
or purple. 

Third. Teaching children, as adva7iced lessons, to un- 
derstand harmony of colors, and to determine what colors 
appear %oell when plcLced together. 

In view of the great importance of giving the lessons 
on color so that they may not fail to secure the results 
aimed at ; and believing that variety in good modes of 
presenting any subject tends to increase the interest of 
pupils and perfect their understanding of it, I deem it 
important for teachers that other methods for instruction 
on color be given in addition to those indicated in my 
Primary Ohject Lessons; and furthermore, I trust that 
the additional information also pi ""sented in this book 



Oi MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

will be found interesting and instrnctive to teachers. 
Many teachers find it difficult to so combine individual 
and class-teaching as to secure the best results in the least 
time. A few hints about giving lessons to large classes 
will assist in overcoming this difficulty. It is for these 
reasons, and others stated under the head of Form^ that 
the following lessons and statements are given. 

Train Pupils to Compare and Name Colors. — Pro- 
vide pieces of colored papers, or cards, Avliich represent the most 
prominent colors, as rcd^ yellow, hlue^ green, 'purple^ vcc\^ proceed 
somewhat as follows : 

First. Distribute red, yellow, and blue papers, giving each pu- 
pil one color. Then the teacher may hold up one of these colors, 
and request all the pupils to compare the color shown by the 
teacher with the one held by themselves, and those who have the 
same color to hold it up. When all liands are again down, the 
teacher may hold up another color and require the pupils to pro- 
ceed in the same way. Continue this exercise until the three 
colors have been thus compared several times. 

Then change the manner by which the pupils show that tlie 
color held is like the one held by the teacher, by requesting each 
pupil who has a like color to stand, holding the color in front of 
the breast. 

Should any pupil stand who has a color differing from the one 
shown by the teacher, ask that pupil to come in front of the class 
and compare his color with the one held by the teacher; and let 
that pupil, also the class, decide whether the two are alike. Pro- 
ceed in a similar manner with each of the other colors. Should 
it be discovered that the pupil cannot distinguish each color, tests 
for color-blindness should be made. [See " Color-Bliudness," for 
methods of testing.] 

Second. Distribute in like manner paper or other material of 
oranye, yrcen, and purple colors, and proceed as in the previous 
exercises. 



TO COMPARE AND NAME COLORS. "95 

Third. Distribute tlic papers as in previous lessons, and ask 
each pupil to notice what color he has, so that he can remember 
it when he sees another paper of the same coloi-. Then direct all 
to put their colors out of siG;ht by folding their arms over them, 
and the teacher may now hold up a color and request those who 
have a color like it to stand and show it. Should any one stand 
who has a different color, call him in front of the class, and let 
him compare the color that he has with the colors which the 
teacher holds, and both himself and the class decide, as before, 
whether the colors are alike. Proceed in a similar manner with 
the other colors. When the same mistake is repeated by a pupil, 
test for "color-blindness."'' 

Fourth. When the children know the names of the common 
colors, the teacher may request all who have a blue color to show 
it; then those who have a red color may hold it up, and so on. 
In each instance let the class correct the mistakes made in show- 
ing the Avrong color. Lessons may be given in the same manner 
with each of the common colors. 

At the close of each of these exercises call upon pupils to col- 
lect the papers — one the red, another the blue, another the yclloio 
ones. Should any mistake be made in collecting the proper color, 
let the class coi'rect it. These exercises will teach the children to 
compare colors while seeing them, to compare them by remem- 
bering them, and to learn their names. 

To distribute these colored papers quickly and in an orderly 
way, they may be placed upon slates, and one slate passed to each 
row of seats ; or they may be put into envelopes made of stout 
paper, and as these are passed from pupil to pupil, each one may 
take out a paper and pass on the envelope. In a similar maimer 
the collections of these papers might be made at the close of the 
lesson. 

Such lessons as have been described here may be given to chil- 
dren during their first year at school. Each lesson should be 
brief, occupying from ten to fifteen minutes at one tinie. The 
first lessons, which especially ought to be short, should embody 
illustrations by the teacher, calculated to attract the attention of 



96 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the pupils. Subsequent lessons, which require more activity on 
the part of the pupils, may be longer. 

Order of Presenting the Lesson. — The order of giving 
these lessons may be stated briefly, as follows : 

First. Showing colors by the teacher; observing, comparing, 
and matching colors by the pupils. 

Second. Pointing out, naming, and otherwise indicating colors, 
by the pupils, so as to show whether or not they can distinguish 
them. 

Changes in the methods of representing the different colors in- 
crease the interest of the children in tlie lesson ; and changes in 
the modes by which the pupils represent what they know of col- 
or, also add interest to these exercises. Avoid, therefore, the use 
of stereotyped forms of giving the lessons, as these lead to me- 
chanical routine. 

Other Methods. — 1. Place the chart of colors before the 
class; call out two pupds ; let one take a pointer, the other a 
color-card, and show it first to the one holding the pointer, then 
to the class, while the one with the pointer tries to point to the 
same color on the chart — the class saying "right" when he suc- 
ceeds. As these two pupils return to their seats, two others may 
be called on to proceed in a like manner with other colors. 

2. This form of giving the lessons may be changed by calling 
out three pupils at a time ; one to use the pointer, another to 
select the card of the color named by the teacher, and the third 
to take a colored crayon resembling the color of the selected card ; 
and, while the pupil with the pointer and the one with the card 
proceed as before, the one with the crayon makes a mark on the 
blackboard to show the class what color he has selected. 

3. For another exercise, let a pupil stand by the table on which 
a variety of colored objects are placed, and, as one member of the 
class after another names a color, he is to try to find it and hold 
it before the class; Avhen "right" or "wrong" will be said by 
the pupils, as the case may be. When this pupil fails to select 
the color named promptly, the one who named it may go and 
find the color, and then take the place at the table, while the first 



MIXTURE OF COLORS. 97 

pupil returns to his scat. Daring tins exercise, the aim of the 
chiss will be to name the color which the pupil does not know- 
well enough to select promptly, and thus send him to his seat, 
that another may take his place at the table. 

4. When the pupils have become familiar with the colors, 
fresh interest may be added to the lessons by calling out different 
pupils to act the part of the teacher in conducting the exercise. 

These different modes of conducting the lessons on 
color may be changed once in two or three weeks, as the 
frequency of the lesson and the interest of the pupils 
seem to require. By these changes the pupils will not 
become weary of the lessons before learning all that is 
aimed to be taught by them. 

The children should also be encouraged to observe the 
colors of flowers and other objects at home, and at school 
to tell the name of the colors thus observed. With young 
children these color lessons may be given daily, or every 
otlier day; while with more advanced primary pupils one 
lesson each week will sufiice. In each case, both the 
length of the lessons and their frequency should be adapt- 
ed to the other school exercises. 



RESULTS OF ]\IIXTURE OF COLORS. 

For the purpose of illustrating the results of the mixt- 
ure of colors, with a view to explaining why some colors 
are called primary^ and others secondary^ procure pig- 
ments, in oil-colors or in water -colors. Select carmine 
for the red^chrome for the yellow, and a light or medium 
ultranianne for the hlue. Provide, also, a small palette, 
and two palette-knives. Of course, these pigments do not 
perfectly represent the red, yellow, and blue as seen in 
the solar spectrum ; yet they furnish good illustrations of 
those colors. 



98 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING. 

Since it is of great importance tliat the methods of 
giving lessons should be such as to awaken and secure an 
interested attention on the part of the pupils, care should 
be taken to give them an opportunity of seeing all that 
you do to illustrate the lesson. You may commence by 
placing on the palette a little of the hhie and of the yel- 
low pigments. Spread these out, side by side, with the 
palette-knives, then request the children to name each of 
these colors. Next proceed to mix these two colors to- 
gether within view of the class, and ask the pupils, to tell 
what you are doing. When you have produced the green, 
by mixing the yellow and the Jjlue^ ask the pupils : 

" What color do you see now on the palette ?" 

" What colors did I mix together?" 

" What color have I made by mixing the yellow and the hlue V 

Then you may write on the blackboard the following : 

Mixing yellow and hlue lyigments ivill make a (jreen. 

Require the class to read this two or three times. 

Before illustrating to the pupils how another secondary color 
may be produced, require them to show that they observed and 
understood what you did to produce the green color. Children 
become acquainted with colors by seeing them, by comparing 
them, and by making experiments with them. Therefore, in 
teaching color to your pupils, it is necessary that you should pro- 
vide the means for enabling them to learn colors by personal ex- 
perience with colored substances. You may provide such means 
by the use of pigments, colored papers, colored crayons, etc. Va- 
rious exercises may be used for this purpose. Some of these I 
will describe as illustrative lessons. 

Illustrative Exercises. — First. Call a pupil to point 
out, on a chart of colors, the two colors tliat were mixed, and 
require the class to name each as it is pointed out; and at the 
same time let one pupil select the same colors from colored cards, 



ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES IN MIXING COLORS. 99 

or colored papers, and show them to the class ; and tell another 
pupil to select a colored card to represent the color produced by 
mixing the yellow and blue, and show it to the class ; at the 
same time the pupil with the pointer may point to the green on 
the chart of colors. Continue this exercise with different pupils 
until all appear to know the fact that green may be made by 
mixing yellow and blue pigments. 

Second. For your second illustration of secondary colors, place 
on the palette, side by side, red and yellow. After the pupils 
have observed and given the names of these colors, proceed to 
mix them together, as before, at the same time asking the class 
to tell what you are doing. When you have produced a good 
orange, ask the pupils to tell what color you made by mixing red 
and yellow. Now write on the blackboard : 

Mixing red and yelloiv pigments will make an orange color. 

Require the pupils to read it two or three times. Next call 
out pupils, as before, one to point to the red and yellow on the 
chart, one to select those two colors from the color-cards, and one 
to select a card to represent the color that was produced by mix- 
ing red and yellow. Continue this exercise as with the one for 
green. 

Third. For a third lesson on mixing colors, take red and blue, 
place them on a palette, and proceed as in the previous lessons, 
sho\\«ing that these two colors will produce a purple. 

Fourth. For a fourth lesson on mixing colors, write on the 
blackboard the result of the illustrations in the three previous 
lessons : 

Mixing red and yellow loill make orange. 

Mixing red and blue will make purple. 

Mixing blue and yelloiv will make green. 

Then call upon tliree pupils each to select from color-cards, 
or other colored objects (without telling them the names of the 
colors), two colors that will produce another; also call upon 



100 Mi\^"UAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

three other pupils to select colors that would be produced by 
mixing each of the two colors held by the first three pupils. 

Other Methods. — You can also illustrate the fact that sec- 
ondary colors may be produced by mixing two primary colors 
with good colored crayons. You may find it difficult, if not im- 
possible, to get a good red crayon, but you can obtain good ydloxo 
and hlue crayons. 

Take a piece of old white muslin, place it on a slate, or on a 
piece of smooth board ; make a broad line on it, at least half an 
inch wide, with a yelloiu crayon ; then make a broad line with the 
hlue crayon across the yellow. By mixing these colors a little 
where they cross each other, a green will appear. By making 
similar lines, crossing each other, with red and yellow crayons, an 
orange color may be made. By using red and blue crayons, a 
purple may be made. Similar results may be shown on the 
blackboard by using colored crayons, but the colors will be less 
distinct. 

A good exercise may be had for ascertaining how well the pu- 
pils remember the several facts that have been illustrated with the 
mixing of colors, by calling upon a pupil to take a red crayon 
and make two lines on the blackboard ; then ask another pupil 
to take another colored crayon and draw across one of the red 
lines a color that should be mixed with red to make orange. Ask 
another pupil to take a crayon and draw a line across the other 
red one, to show what color should be mixed with red to make 
'purple. Let other pupils make yellow lines, and show how green 
and orange are produced. Blue lines may also be made, and the 
other colors drawn across them to show the formation of green 
and purple. 

Take care to continue each mode of illustration until all the 
pupils understand it; but also take care to change the form of 
your illustrations of each fact before the pupils tire of it. 

Exercise for a Large Class. — The following method 
Avill bo found a simple, inexpensive, and efficient means of fur- 
nishinu' additiunal exercises for illustralinu' the forn)ation of sec- 



EXERCISE FOR A LARGE CLASS. 101 

ondary colors. This mode is tlic more valuable because it o-jvcs 
each pupil an opportunity of representing the fact simultaneously : 

Procure pieces of colored tissue-paper or some common colored 
motto-papers, each about three by four inches. Select the best 
specimens of red, yellow, and blue. Distribute these papers among 
the pupils, giving to each two different colors. The teacher may 
now take pieces of yellow and of blue tissue-paper, place one npon 
the other, and hold them up toward the window, so that light 
may be seen through them. Then ask the children who have 
yellow and blue papers to do the same, and to tell what color 
they see through the yellow and blue papers. Request the pupils 
that saw the green color to stand and tell what colors were placed 
together to make the green. 

Proceed in a similar Avay with red and yellow ; afterward, with 
red and blue. Call upon each pupil to look through his colored 
papers, and to tell what color he sees, also to name the two colors 
which were placed together to be looked through. Then call 
upon all w"ho have suitable papers to show how orange is made ; 
then call upon others to show how green is made ; and others, 
how imrple is made. 

Vary this exercise by asking pupils to show the two colors that 
will make green ; then orange ; then purple. 

Make Lessons of Your Own. — If you will receive 
these as illustrative lessons rather than methods to be 
invariably followed, and — after becoming familiar with 
their spirit and aim — will then devise other similar ex- 
ercises having the same end in view, and endeavor to bet- 
ter adapt the lessons to the wants of your own pupils, and 
especially if your methods of conducting the lessons shall 
furnish the pupils abundant opportunities for showing 
that they understand the subject, success will attend your 
instruction. 



102 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 



REVIEW OF LESSONS ON COLOR. 

Naming Colors in Groups.— Write the names of three 
reds; of three yelloics ; of three blues; of three greens; of three 
orange colors ; of three purples. 

Dark Colors. — Write the names of two dark reds on your slate ; 
the names of two darlc yellows; of two darlc Hues; of a dark orange; 
of a dark green; of a dark j)iirple. 

Show pieces of paper, ribbon, and worsted of each of these colors, 
and require the pupils to name the color shown. 

Light Colors. — Write on your slates the names of two ligM 
reds; of two llglit Hues; of two light yellows; of two light greens; 
of two light 2mrp)les. Require the jjupils to name each of these colors 
as it is shown. 

Standard Colors. — Write the name of the color that Lest 
represents each of the standard colors — red, yellow, blue, orange, 
green, purple. Require the pupils to select each of these standard 
colors from a group of colors. 

Shades of Colors. — Write the name of a sJiade of each of the 
following colors — 7-ed, yellow, orange, green, Hue, pwple. Let the pu- 
pils select a shade of each color named. 

Tints of Colors. — Write the name of a tint of each of the fol- 
lowing colors — red, yellow, orange, blue, green, purple, and require 
the pupils to select each tint from worsteds. 

What pigment will produce orange when mixed with yellow ? 
What i^igment will produce green when mixed with yellow ? 
What i^igment will produce purj^le when mixed with Uue? 
What pigment must be mixed with Uue to produce green ? 
What pigment must be mixed with red to produce purple? 
What pigment must be mixed with red to produce orange ? 

Write the names of each of these groups on your slate, so as to 
represent the two colors which must be mixed to produce the third 
color, thus : 

'Purple. fiZr:::^Orange. 



TelloW' 



MIXTURE OF COLORS. 103 



STATEMENTS ABOUT COLOR. 
FOR THE TEACHER. 

Mixture of Colors, — Experiments made with the mixture 
of pigments of different colors led Sir David Brewster and otlicrs 
to believe that all colors may be divided into two groups — those 
that cannot be produced by mixing colors, and those that can be 
produced by the mixture of two or more colors. It was found 
that an orange color could be produced by mixing together red 
and yellow pigments ; green, by mixing yellow and blue pigments ; 
purjile, by mixing red and blue pigments ; also, that no mixture 
of pigments could be made that would produce either red, yellow, 
or blue. In consequence of these results from the mixture of 
pigments, the three colors which could not be produced by mix- 
ing — red, yellow, blue — were called inhnary colors; and the three 
colors that could be produced by mixing two of the primary col- 
ors were called secondary colors. 

Newton having shown that the white light of the sun ma}^ be 
separated into the seven prismatic colors — red, orange, yellow, 
green, blue, indigo, purple — it was assumed that sunlight may be 
resolved into the three primary colors, and that tlie mixture of 
colored rays of light would produce the same results as the mixt- 
ure of pigments. But more recent experiments have shown that 
the mixture of colored rays of light does not, in all cases, produce 
the same colors that arc obtained when pigments of corresponding 
colors are mixed. This fact may be easily illustrated by placing 
a blue veil upon a yelloiu surface ; or a yclloiv veil upon a blue 
surface, when it will be seen that the color produced is grayish, 
and not a green, as when blue and yclloiv pigments arc mixed. 
This fact may also be illustrated by drawing a group of fine lines 
of blue upon yelloiv ground, which will also produce a grayish 
color. If fine red lines be drawn in a like manner upon a blue 
ground, the surface will appear purple at a little distance. If red 
lines be drawn upon a yellow surface, an orange color will appear. 



104: MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING. 

In explanation of the foregoing facts, the scientists say that 
colors are not mixed by tlie mixture of pigments ; and that in 
the case of ingmcnts the mixing takes i^lace upon the 2)alette, whWe 
ivith colors of light, as with the colored veils and the colored 
lines, the mixture takes place in the eye. In many cases, however, 
the mixture of pigments and the mixture of colors of light lead 
to results which are nearly identical, as that of red and yellow, in 
producing orange ; and that of red and blue, in producing purple. 

It is a common occurrence for manufacturers to produce mixed 
colors by twisting together differently colored threads, and weav- 
ing the yarn thus formed into the fabric, so as to make it, at the 
distance at which it will usually be seen, appear of the color 
desired. 

Colors are also mixed in the eye by the 'persistence of impres- 
sions. You may understand the meaning of this term by recall- 
ing the fact that a stick with a coal of fire at one end may bo 
swung around so rapidly as to produce the appearance of a circle 
of fire. This may be illustrated, also, by painting a red spot upon 
a black disk, and revolving it rapidly, when a faint red ring will 
appear. This shows that the impressions' of light and color, made 
upon the retina of the eye, do not cease instantly after the object 
that produces the impression is removed. It is owing to this fact 
that the rotating color, and the coal of fire, produce the circular 
appearance. 

Tlie mixture of colors hy persistence of impressions may be illus- 
trated by means of rotating disks, and also by color-tops. 

Procure circular disks, each about six inches in diameter, made 
of very thin boards. Let each disk be fastened on one end of an 
axle, or shaft, which is fitted in two upright standards, so that the 
disk can be made to revolve rapidly. On one disk paint red and 
yellow, in the form of sectors of nearly equal size, and so arranged 
that each color alternates with the other. Now, by pulling the 
cord, which is wound around the shaft, the disk is made to revolve 
rapidly, and the two colors are so blended by the motion that you 
can distinguish neither the red nor yellow, but in the place of 
these you will see orange, which is a secondary color. 

On another disk paint, in sectors, red and blue, with the blue 



MIXTUllE OF COLORS. 105 

sectors covering about two-thirds of the disk, and the red one- 
third. By revolving this disk rapidly, these two colors, red and 
blue, blend together, and you will see in their place one color, a 
purple, which is another secondary. In both of these cases the 
mixture of the colors takes place in the eye. 

On a third disk paint sectors of yellow and blue, in the propor- 
tion of two blue sectors to one yellow one. Now, from what you 
have already observed, as the disks revolved which contained other 
colors, you naturally will expect to see green when this disk re- 
volves. Please observe the result : You will see on this revolving 
disk neither blue, nor yellow, nor green, but a grayish color, sim- 
ilar to that produced with the blue and yellow veils, or with the 
blue lines upon a yellow surface. 

Varied and numerous experiments have been made in attempts 
to produce green by the mixture of colors in the eye, or by the 
mixture of colored rays of light, but without success; therefore, 
scientists tell us that green may be classed with the primary colors. 
In reality, all the colors into which sunlight can be resolved by 
the spectrum may be called primary colors. And white light 
may be called a mixed color. 

As far as pertains to the common experiences of artists, paint- 
ers, and those who use colors in pigments, or paints, red, yellow, 
and blue may be regarded as primary colors, and orange, green, 
and purple as secondary colors. Artists sometimes divide colors 
into three groups — primary, secondary, and tertiary ; the second- 
ary colors being those formed by the mixture of two of the j^^i- 
maries ; while a tertiary color is one produced by the mixture of 
two of the secondary colors. And, inasmuch as these groups or 
classes furnish interesting exercises for making the pupils familiar 
with the different colors, they may be appropriately used in giving 
color lessons ; yet, these classes cannot be regarded as of much 
importance in matters pertaining to colored rays of light. 

5* 



106 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



HARMONY IN COLORS. 



Purple. 




Orange. 



Purple. 




Orange. 



Green. <^>-een. 

1. 2. 

BIAGEAMS OP HAnMONlZINQ COLORS. 



Citrino. 



The above diagrams will aid in understanding and remember- 
ing the harmonizing colors, and the laws that govern them. It 
will be seen in the first of these diagrams that the name of the 
secondary, produced by the combination of two primary colors, is 
placed at the angle between the two colors that produce it, and 
at the angle of the hexagon opposite the primary color with which 
it harmonizes. 

The same plan of arrangement may be seen in the second dia- 
gram, showing the two secondaries that produce a tertiary color, 
and the secondary at the opposite angle, which harmonizes with it. 

It may be seen by the preceding diagrams that primary colors 
liarmonize with secondary colors, also that secondary colors har- 
monize witli tertiary colors. It may be added that the shades 
and tints of these colors harmonize also. But in this connection 
it should be remembered that as one of the primary colors loses 
its purity by the mixture of a little of either of the other colors, 
its complementary must also contain some of the remaining pri- 
mary. Thus, if the red contains a little yellow, tending toward a 
scarlet or vermilion, the green, to be truly complementary, should 
contain more blue, or be a bluish green. If, on the other hand, 
the red contains blue and tends toward a crimson, the green 
should contain more yellow, or be a yellowish green. 



EFFECTS BY CONTRAST OF COLORS. 107 

There is also a principle of contrast existing between colors 
wliicli harmonize. Thus yellow, which is of all colors the nearest 
to light, harmonizes with purple, the darkest of the three regular 
secondary hues. Red, the most positive and exciting of colors, 
harmonizes with green, which is the most soothing and grateful 
to the eye. Again, blue is the coldest and most retiring of col- 
ors; it harmonizes with orange, Avhich is the warmest and most 
advancing. 

The secondary color which harmonizes with a given primary 
is sometimes called the complementary , or accidental, or the con- 
trasting color of that primary. The tertiary colors stand in the 
same relation to the secondaries that the secondaries do to the 
primary colors ; and they are also called complementary colors 
when they harmonize with the secondary colors. 

We have already seen that the combination of those colors 
"which are the constituents of white light are always harmonious, 
beautiful, and refreshing ; and, on the contrary, that those colors 
■which contain only a part of the constituents of white light, as 
red and yellow, red and blue, or yellow and blue, when placed by 
the side of each other, arc most decidedly inharmonious, and are 
held as offensive to taste and unrcfreshing to the eye. However, 
this discord may be partially relieved by bringing in a third color 
which is a harmonic to either of the other two ; thus, red and 
yellow are disharmonic, but they may be harmonized by the in- 
troduction of green. These three colors are often seen harmoni- 
ously blended in the variegated foliage with which autumn clothes 
our forests. 

Effects by Contrast of Colors. — When two harmoniz- 
ing colors arc placed side by side, each color not only reflects its 
oivn proper hue, but also some of its oivn complementary rays, thus 
mutually enriching each other. When two colors which are in- 
harmonious arc placed side. by side, the juxtaposition renders them 
still more inharmonious from the same law of contrast. If a blue 
is placed by the side of a purple, the blue is apparently darkened 
in shade, and becomes greenish from the effects of the comple- 
mentary yellow rays given out by the purple ; while the purple is 



108 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

injured by tlie reflection of the complementary orange rays from 
the surface of the blue adjoining' it, Avliicli inclines the purple 
toward a russet hue. But these effects are greatly modified by 
dividing the colors from each other by white. 

A color is enriched by contrasting it with a white ground ; and 
weakened by contrasting it with a black ground. 

Grays increase the brilliancy of the primary colors when placed 
in juxtaposition with them. Arrangements of the primaries with 
black are agreeable. 

"When two tints of the same color are placed together, the light 
tint will ajjpear still lighter, and the dark tint still darker. 

Phenomena of "Vision. — Simple experiments may be 
made with colored wafers, or with small pieces of colored paper 
or ribbon, illustrating the curious relations of those colors which 
are complementary to each other. 

If a red wafer be placed on a sheet of white paper, and the 
eyes be steadily directed to it, by-and-by it will appear to be en- 
circled with a fringe of green ; now, if the wafer be suddenly 
removed, there will appear in its place, for a short time, a green 
spectrum of the form of the wafer. This ocular sjjectrum grad- 
ually fades away as the nerves of the eye, which had become fa- 
tigued with looking at the color of the wafer, recover their tone. 
If the wafer be green, the spectrum will appear red ; if the wafer 
be yellow, the spectrum will be purple. Whatever the color of 
the object, the ocular spectrum will have its harmonic or com- 
plementary color. 

In a like manner, if we look at the sun when low in the hori- 
zon and red, on turning the eyes away there will float before 
the vision an ocular spectrum of the form of the sun, but of a 
greenish color. 

The reason of these curious effects of color may be explained 
by the supposition that the part of the retina on which the col- 
ored image fell had become fatigued by looking intently at one 
color, and thereby rendered insensible to it, or unable to receive 
more rays of that color, so that, when it is removed, the other 
colors necessary to produce white light, with the color under ob- 



TBEXOMENA OF VISION. 109 

servation, iminodintcly unite with it, forming the complementary 
color seen in tlie ocular spectrum, thus effecting the restoration 
of the exhausted portion of the retina to its normal condition. 

There is another familiar phenomenon connected with the laws 
of vision on which the harmony of colors is based. When we 
examine, for a length of time, a minute object lying on a differ- 
ent colored surface, as a small dark spot on white paper or in a 
distant field, the' object will suddenly disappear. The same re- 
sult ensues when we strain the eye to perceive a distant object 
of a small size. After looking at it steadily for some time, the 
more intently we try to observe it the more sure is it to elude 
our vision. The sportsman, in endeavoring to follow his game 
and mark the spot where it alights, is almost certain to be baiSed 
by this physiological law of sight. 

Let it be remembered that the point of our best vision is 
directly in the centre of the retina, and extends over but a small 
space; that the perception oi form diminishes rapidly from the 
centre of the pupil outward in all directions ; that around the 
best point of vision we perceive red, green, and purple; that out- 
side of this circle or belt we perceive only green and purple, and 
that beyond this belt we perceive only blue or violet; and then 
consider these facts in connection with the laws of harmony of 
colors, and the phenomena of vision may be more easily under- 
stood. 

These peculiarities of vision might have proved very embar- 
rassing to us had it not been provided that for clear and distinct 
sight the eye need not rest long upon the object. A searching 
motion of the eye, with only a brief dwelling upon the object, 
gives clearest vision. 



110 M^VNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 



COLOR-BLINDNESS. 

Color-blindness is a subject about which little was 
known before the beginning of the present century ; and 
more facts have been discovered in relation to its nature, 
extent, and dangers within the past thirty years than were 
previously known concerning it. During the past five 
years it has assumed great importance in connection with 
the management of raih'oads, marine service, manufacto- 
ries, etc. Both in Europe and in the United States spe- 
cial attention has been given to the detection of color- 
blindness among railroad employes, with a view to protect 
travellers from danger and companies from loss by acci- 
dents. Kot only have railway companies instituted exam- 
inations of their engineers, conductors, brakemen, switch- 
men, flagmen, etc., but several of the State Legislatures 
have passed laws requiring the railroad companies to 
make the tests necessary to determine whether or not 
their employes are defective in distinguishing the colors 
used as signals ; and fines have been fixed for employing 
any person found to be thus defective in visual power. 

This matter has also received special attention from 
some of the members of the medical profession, who have 
made extensive examinations to determine the nature and 
extent of color-blindness. Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, 
has examined instructors and students in colleges and art- 
schools, and boys in high and grammar schools, during 
the past two or three years, to the number of more than 
ten thousand persons. In this number he found nearly 
three hundred who were red-hJlnd., seventy-five who were 
green -Mind., and over four hundred totally color -hlind. 
Dr. Jeffries also examined about eight thousand female 



NATURE OF COLOR-BLINDXESS. Ill 

teachers, students, and pnpils in normal schools, higli- 
schools, and grammar-scliools, and among these he found 
one who was red-blind, one who was green-hlind, and four 
who were totally color-lllnd. Examinations made of fe- 
males in Europe show also that the proportion of color- 
blind females is very small, as compared with that of 
males. It is probable tliat the early exercise of the sense 
of color by girls, and their extensive practice in atten- 
tion to colors during the experiences of life, develop the 
color-perception so completely in them as to overcome 
those deficiencies that are not of a physical nature ; while 
in the case of boj's, who naturally give but little attention 
to color, the color-perception remains but partially devel- 
oped, and feeble. 

Dr. Favre, of France, examined about six thousand per- 
sons who were candidates for railroad work, and found 
more than sixty red-blind. He also examined seven hun- 
dred and seventy-five ofiicers and sailors, among Avhom he 
found seventy-five color-blind ; and nineteen of these con- 
founded red with green. Similar results have been found 
by examinations made by other persons, in England, 
Holland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Italy, and 
Switzerland. 

As a means of lessening the danger from mistakes in 
distinguishing colored signals, several railroads, among 
them the elevated roads of New York city, have adopted 
a system of combined Signals of Color and Signals of 
Form, so that one signal shall verify the other. 

Nature of Color-blindness. — The sense of seeing 
appears to possess two distinct powers of perception : 
these may be aoWed. form-percej^tion, or the power to per- 
ceive different forms ; and color-xierception, or the power 
to perceive different colors. In some persons the power 
to perceive colors is absolutely wanting. To such indi- 



112 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

viduals all colors appear only as different degrees of dark- 
ness and lightness. This condition is called total color- 
hlindness. In some persons the power to perceive one 
color — either a red, green, or violet — is wanting. Tliis is 
known ^'s>2KiHial color-hlindriess, and is divided into three 
kinds, viz. : 

Red-blindness — or inability to perceive red, mistaking it 
for green' and the seeing of all red colors 7mic/i darker 
than they are j- 2X^0 confounding reds with grays. 

Green-blindness — or inability to perceive green, mistak- 
ing it for red; and the seeing of all green colors 'iuuch 
lighter than they are; also confounding greens with grays. 

Violet-blindness — or inability to perceive motet, or bluish 
purple, mistaking red and orange for purple. This kind 
is seldom found. 

Tests for Color-blindness. — The method of testing for 
color-blindness now most commonly used, because of its sim- 
plicity and certainty, was devised by Professor Holmgren, of 
Sweden. Tlie materials used are chiefly Berlin worsteds. Col- 
ored silks, papers, and other materials may be used ; but the wors- 
teds are best, because these can be procured in all possible colors 
and tones or degrees of color. 

The Colors used for this purpose should include excellent 
samples of red^ orange, yellow, yelloiv-grcen, -pure-green, hlue-green, 
blue, violet, jmrple, ^;/m/1-, broion, gray, with at least five gradations 
of each color, from very light to very dark. Greens and grays, 
and the pale-gray browns, yellows, reds, and jnnks, must be well 
represented. 

Method of Testing. — Place the worsteds on a white cotton 
cloth upon a table in a good light. Lay a skein of the color 
desired for the test far enough aside not to be confounded with 
the other worsteds, and require the person to be examined to 
select other skeins that resemble that, and place them by the side 
of it. The one examined may be told to select a color like the 



TESTS FOR COLOR-BLINDNESS. 113 

test-color, also two or three lighter and one or two darker ones. 
The individuars ability to perceive color is determined by the 
manner in which this task is performed. 

The prin«iple of the test is to require the selection of one color 
from many colors, and to select it by its resemblance, and not by 
its name. It is better not to name the colors during the test. 
The individual examined should depend entirely upon his ability 
to perceive and distinguish resemblances and differences in colors. 
Speak of the color laid aside as the test-color ; the other worsteds 
may be called the " colors of confusion,^'' or simply the bunch of 
worsteds. 

First Test. — In testing for color-blindness use the green test- 
color first. Select a ^^wre green, one that is about midway be- 
tween the lightest and darkest grades of the greens. Emerald- 
green, or the color of Paris-green, will give an idea of the ap- 
propriate color for this purpose. Do not select a yellowish green. 
The person examined should be told to find all the colors that 
resemble the test-color, including those that are darker and those 
that are lighter than the test-Qolor, and to place them by the side 
of it. Carefully observe what colors are chosen, and the mistakes 
made, in order to determine whether or not color-blindness exists. 

If the person chooses the pale colors, as light grays, with a buff, 
pink, yellow, brownish, or greenish tint to match the green test- 
color, or if he chooses a reddish purple or a gray for the same 
purpose, he may be considered color-blind. 

Second Test. — As a second test for color-blindness use a light 
jmrple as a test-color — one that is midway between the lightest 
and darkest blue-purple, and inclining toward a violet, or bluish 
purple. If the colors selected to match this by the one who ap- 
peared to be color-blind by the first test are all purple, including 
lighter and darker grades, he is not fully color-blind. 

Red-blind. — If the person selects a dark blue or a violet to 
match the 2^^i^2^l<^ test-color, he is red-blind. If he selects dark 
green, brown, or gray to match a red test-color, he is red-blind. 
Take the color known as vermilion as the red test-color. 

Should the person select blue, yellow, or other light colors to 



114 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

rnatch red, it is evidence of stupidity, or want of developed 
knowlcdg-e of color, and not of red-blindness. The red- blind 
never select the colors chosen by the green-blind. 

Green-blind. — If the person selects a bluish green or a pur- 
plish gray to match the liurple test-color, he is green-hUnd. The 
green-blind often place a bright violet or a blue with the green 
test-color. If he selects lighter greens or browns to match a red 
test-color, he is green-blind. The green-blind never select the col- 
ors taken by the red-blind. 

Importance of this Subject.* — The great importance 
of attention to this subject of color-blindness will be apparent 
when it is remembered that red, green, and white are the colors 
used on railroads as signals of danger, caution, and safety ; and 
also when it is remembered that success in many of the avoca- 
tions of life depends upon a normal condition of the perception 
of color, and the ability to distinguish colors which comes from 
the exercise of this visual power. By means of proper instruc- 
tion in school, which shall comprise more experience /in matching 
colors than in learning their names, the great majority of cases of 
defective visual power to perceive colors would be detected and 
pointed out to the pupils, and warning given as to the impro- 
priety of engaging in any avocation for life in which the ability 
to perceive and distinguish colors formed a part of the needed 
qualifications for success. 

Colors as Signals. — Colored flags and colored lights are 
universally used as signals. The colors most commonly employed 
for this purpose, and the signification of each, are given below : 

Red — a danger-signal. A red Jlag by day or a red light by 
night is a signal of danger. On a railroad, a red flag or a red 
light swung or waved over the track signifies, " Danger — stop." 
If a red flag or a red light is stuck up by the side of a railroad 
it signifies, " Danger on the track ahead." If a red flag is car- 
ried unfurled on an engine it signifies, "Another engine on its 

* Those ■who desire more extended information relative to color-hlindness, 
metliods of testing for it, etc., are referred to Color -lUudness: its Danr/eis 
and its Detection, by Dr. B. Joy JeiTries (Houj;htou, Osgood & Co., Boston). 



COLORS AS SIGNALS AND AS EMBLEMS. 115 

way, following." "When a red flag is hoisted at a railway-station 
it signifies, " Stop at this station." 

The Signal Service — weather bureau — displays a red flag %vith 
a black centre by day, or a red light by night, as the signal that 
dangerous weather or a storm is approaching. 

Green — a caution-signal. A green flag by day or green light 
by night is a signal of caution. On a railway, green signifies, 
" Travel slowly." It is more a signal of safety than of danger. 

White — a safetg-signal. A white flag by day or a white light 
by night is a signal of safety. To an engineer or conductor of a 
railway -train it means, "All right — go ahead." 

The white flag is a token of peace. In war it signifies a desire 
to stop hostilities, and a request for a conference. It is called a 
flag of truce. 

Black. — A black flag on a ship denotes liiracy. In war it 
is sometimes hoisted to signify that no quarter will be given or 
taken ; it denotes death to all. 

Yellow. — A yelloio flag in a harbor denotes quarantine — a 
hospital. It indicates the surgeon's head-quarters in the army. 

Marine Signals. — By a general law of nations lights must 
be carried from sunset to sunrise, to indicate the jjosition and 
course of a ship at night. For this purpose the colors chosen are 
a bright white light carried at the head of the foremast, a green 
light suspended on the starboard (right) side, and a red light on 
the port (left) side. These lights are so placed that when all of 
them can be seen the vessel is directly ahead, and its direction 
can be determined by observing on which side the red and green 
lights appear. 

Colors as Emblems. — Every passion and emotion of the 
mind has its appropriate tint in colors. Color influences anger, 
deepens sadness, warms love, and brightens joy. 

Black is an emblem of sorroio and mourning. 

White is an emblem of innocence, peace, purity. 

Red signifies defiance. It is an emblem of war. It stimulates 



IIG M.VXUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

courage, anger, fierceness. It excites tLc anger of the turkey, 
and provokes tlie madness of the bull. 

Blue is an emblem of faith. The tlue sky above reminds of 
the realms beyond, and enkindles faith in God's promises. 

Yellow is symbolic of joy. The sensible effects of yellow are 
gay and enlivening. The yellow harvest crowns the year, and 
gives joy to the husbandman. 

Orange is symbolic of richness. 

Green is symbolic of i/outh and vif/07: It is an emblem of hojoe. 

Purple is an emblem of royaltij. The sensible effects of pur- 
ple arc those of grandeur, statelincss, dignity. 

Brown in its effects is sedate, stable. 

Gray indicates humility. 

Effects of Color on Complexion. — If the complexion 
is that of a blonde, sky-blue, the complement of a pale orange, 
enriches it. 

Green tends to add a ruddy tint to a light complexion ; but 
it changes the orange hue of a brunette to a brick-red color. 

Yellow and Orange produce a pleasing effect on the brunette 
complexion. 

"White has a good effect upon light complexions ; but dark 
complexions appear worse by its strong contrast. 

Black makes the complexion appear lighter. 

The prevailing color of the complexion may be either height- 
ened or lowered by the dress worn. It is heiyhtened by white 
drapery, and lowered by black drapery. Green drapery heightens 
a rosy complexion, and adds more red to the orange complexion. 

A light-blue drapery heightens a pale orange or blonde com- 
plexion. 

A deep-red drapery lowers the tint of a rosy complexion ; and 
a deep oranye lowers the tint of an orange complexion.- 

A delicate gi-een is favorable to all fair complexions that are 
deficient in rose. 



ADVANCED LESSONS ON COLOR. 117 



ADVANCED LESSONS ON COLOR. 

By carefully observing the effects produced upon the eyes, 
wliile looking steadily at different colors, it will be noticed that 
the sensation becomes unpleasant when the eyes are directed to 
a single color for a long time ; also that relief is experienced 
when another color is placed before them. It will be found that 
white light is more agreeable to the eye, in its normal condition, 
than any colored light. And in order to afford agreeable sensa- 
tions, there must be white light (which contains all the colors of 
the spectrum mixed together), or there must be present two col- 
ors which would produce white if mixed together. 

Complementary Colors are those hoo colors u'kich, tmited, con- 
tain the three 2^1'imarij colors; or which, ivhen mixed, xoould pro- 
duce a whitish color. 

When pigments arc used in the mixing of colors, the following 
pairs of colors are the complements of each other: red and green; 
yelloio and i^ur-ple; blue and orange. 

It will be observed that in each pair one of the colors named 
contains the two primary colors which, united with the other 
color of the pair, furnish the three primary colors necessary to 
produce white. 

It has been ascertained by numerous experiments in mixing 
coloi'cd rays of light, colored lines, and other means by which 
the colors arc mixed in the eye, that each color in the following 
list complenients the one opposite in the other column : 

Red complements .... Bluish green. 

Orange " .... Turquoise blue. 

Yelloio " .... Ultramarine blue. 

Green " .... Purplish red. 

Violet " .... Yelloivish green. 

Similar modifications, frou! dark to light, and i>ale, may be 



118 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

made in tbc colors of eacli of these pairs, and still tliey "will com- 
plement each other. If the red be chatiged from a carmine to a 
scarlet, the complementary green will contain more blue. Even 
a slight change in the hue of one color renders it necessary that 
a considerable change be made in the hue of its complementary 
color. 

How to find Complementary Colors. — Experiments made 
with blue lines upon a yellow surface, with a blue veil on a yel- 
low surface, also with colors on revolving disks, and by mixing 
pigments, will indicate, by the production of a grayish white col- 
or, colors that complement each other. But the following are 
more simple experiments that may be easily made for the pur- 
pose of determining what color is a complement of any given 
color. Take colored wafers, or pieces of colored paper, silk, or 
some other material, place a single one upon a black surface in 
a strong light, and look at it steadily for a few seconds, then 
suddenly push away the colored object, keeping the eye fixed 
upon the spot, and the complement of the color thus looked at 
will appear in its place. If the object looked at be red, the after- 
image will be bluish green ; if orange, the image will be blue ; if 
yelloio, the image will be dai-k blue or indigo ; if green, the image 
will be ^?M?7;/?s/i red ; if violet, the image will be 7/elloivish green. 

Colors which are complements of each other will harmonize 
when placed together. In order to determine whether a color 
will harmonize, or appear well if placed with another, we may 
ascertain whether it is a complement of that color by a process 
similar to that described above; or we must decide whether the 
two colors contain those that produce Avhite. 

Harmony of Colors. — From what has been said concern- 
ing complementary colors, it will be readily seen how we may 
ascertain which are harmonic colors, as these are governed by the 
same laws as the complementary colors. It will also appear that 
a true harmony of colors is based upon something more certain 
and permanent than the caprice of fashion, or that which is com- 
monly called " taste," with its liability to become perverted. 

The laws of harnionv of colors ever remain the same, yet the 



MATERIALS FOR LESSONS OX COLOR. 119 

indefinite modifications of colors allow a corresponding variety in 
their harmonious arrangements.* 

Harmony of colors may be properly classed with useful knowl- 
edge, since it enters into works of art, manufactures, decorations 
of dwellings, the selection and arrangement of materials of dress, 
and into various matters of daily life. It is also both useful and 
interesting as a matter of instruction. But to be most practically 
useful, the instruction should consist chiefly of exercises for train- 
ing the pupils to discriminate lohen the given colors harmonize, 
rather than of those requiring the mere memory of facts as to 
which colors do appear well together. These lessons will be more 
generally useful to girls than to boys ; and girls will doubtless 
take the most interest in them. 

It now remains to describe how lessons in harmony of colors 
may be given. 

Materials for Lessons. — For illustrating harmony of col- 
ors, procure a variety of Colored papers, pieces of silk, worsteds, 
etc., of different shades and hues, as dark red, purplish red, light 
red, vermilion, orange, yellow, yellowish green, green, bluish green, 
blue, turquoise blue, ultramarine, purple, light purple, violet, light 
violet, brown, russet, citrine, olive, gray, black, white, etc. 

The 'colored papers may be cut in squares of two sizes — two 
inches and one inch. Place a one-inch red square on a two-inch 
green one, and a one-inch green square on a two-inch red one. 
Attach the smaller square to the centre of the larger one with 
gum, so as to allow the color of the larger square to show around 
the smaller one. Arrange other pairs of complementary colors 
in the same way. Also, arrange pairs of colors that are not com- 
plementary in a similar manner. 

* Those who desire to obtain further information upon this subject, and 
upon the Seienee of Colors as applied to arts and raanufaetures, may find 
rceent authority in Tlie Theory of Color, by Dr. Von Bezold, translated by S. 
R. Kochler, Avitli illustrations (L. Prang & Co., Boston). 



120 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



LESSONS IN nARMONY OF COLORS. 

The following lessons are given as illustrations of methods 

that may be used, but not to be copied, or literally followed by 

the teacher : 

I. 

Object. — To lead the pupil to simple perceptions of 
Iianiiony and of discord in colors. 

Place before the pupils, or, better still, in the hands of each 
one, a pair of complementary colors, prepared as before described, 
and request them to notice whether the two colors thus repre- 
sented look well together. 

Then let the pupils select the same colors from the worsteds 
or pieces of silk, place them together, and notice their appear- 
ance. 

Change the pair of colors, so that each pupil shall hold a dif- 
ferent pair. Let them select like colors, place them together, and 
observe the effect. 

When the pupils have thus observed pairs of red and green, 
blue and orange, yellow and purple, place before them pairs of 
colors that are not harmonic, as red and orange, yellow and or- 
ange, blue and green, yellow and green, and lead them to notice 
whether the colors of these pairs look well. 

Next let the pupils take one of the colors of the non-harmonic 
pairs, and try to find another color that will look w^cll with it. 

Talk about colors for a dress. Ask whether blue ribbon would 
look well on a green dress ; whether yellow would look well on a 
pink dress ; Avhether red would look well on a green dress, etc. 

Continue exercises in arranging colors that look well together 
until the pupils understand that some colors please the eye, while 
others offend it. 

If it be found that false notions as to which colors may be 
grouped together are entertained by the pupils, these should be 
corrected. 



LESSONS IN HARMONY OF COLORS. 121 

IL 

Object. — To fiirnisli additional exercise in the harmony 
of colors. 

Place before the pupils colored papers, silks, worsteds, etc., and 
request each to form pairs of colors that look well. Should a 
pupil violate the law of harmony in the arrangement of these 
pairs, call her attention to it ; and if she cannot correct it, let the 
class tell what is wrong, and what color to substitute for one of 
them. 

Let pupils select colors that please them best, and the class 
decide whether the colors are harmonic. 

Place before the pupils pairs of non-harmonic colors, and re- 
quest the pupils to tell what changes must be made to produce a 
pair of harmonic colors. 

Request the pupils to arrange flowers in a bouquet so that the 
principal colors shall be harmonic. Place complementary colors 
side by side, as blue >yith orange, yellow with purple, red with 
green leaves ; and use white to separate colors which do not 
harmonize. Add a variety of similar exercises, until the" pupils 
appear to understand when colors are harmonic, and why some 
colors do not please the sense of sight. 

After lessons for observing colors that look well together, ar- 
range other pairs of colored squares, as follows : red and orange ; 
yelloiv and orange ; blue and green; yellow and ^reen ; blue and 
purple; red and jmrj^le. Show these groups of colors to the 
pupils, and ask them to decide whether these look as well as 
those of the other groups. Then place squares of red and green, 
and of red and orange, before tlie pupils, and let them tell which 
pair appears better. Make similar comparisons with other colors, 
so as to afford abundant exercise in discriminating colors that 
harmonize from those that do not. 

Care should be taken to so conduct all of these lessons on 
harmony of colors that the 2Jupils tvill be required to observe 
the effect of each pair of colors, and to decide for themselves 
whether the colors a[>pear well together. 

6 



122 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



III. 

Object. — To teacli the names of prominent colors that 
harmonize. 

Request the pupils to name colors that harmonize in the pairs of 
harmonic colors shown them. Request them also to arrange colors 
iu harmonic pairs, and to tell what colors they thus place together. 

Request them to point out and name, from the chart, two col- 
ors that harmonize. 

The teacher may name a color, and a pupil name one to har- 
monize with it. 

One pupil may name a color, the next pupil one to harmonize 
with it, and so on around the class. 

The teacher may name five colors for pupils to write on their 
slates, and require the pupils to write with each color the name 
of one that will harmonize with it- 
Let pupils select colors, and others match them Avith harmonic 
colors, and name each color. 

Give lessons in which special attention is directed to ascertain- 
ing what color harmonizes with a given color. The method 
already mentioned under the head of "Complementary Colors" — 
that of placing the given color upon a black surface in a strong 
light, etc. — may be used. 

IV. 

Object. — To lead the pupils to notice harmony between 
secondary and tertiary colors. 

Place before the pupils various objects, cards, etc., represent- 
ing purple, orange, green, russet-, citrine, olive, etc., and request 
the pupils to select pairs of colors that harmonize. The names 
of these pairs may be written on the blackboard as they are 
selected by the pupils, thus — 

Purple, • Green, Orange, 

Citrine. liusset. Olive. 

Request one pupil to select and name a secondary color, an- 
other one to select its harmonic color, and name it. 



LESSONS IN HARMONY OF COLORS. 123 



Object. — To lead pupils to observe tlie principles of 
harmony of colors in dress and decorations of rooms, etc. 

Provide articles — as shawls, capes, etc. — of different colors. 
These may be made of colored paper if the desired colors can- 
not be found in garments at liand. 

Select a child with a pink dress, and place a blue cape on it, 
and request the pupils to notice the effect. 

Place a green cape on the same child, and let the pupils tell 
which looks better. 

Make similar experiments with dresses of other colors, until the 
pupils readily understand what colors may be used together in 
articles of dress. 

Lead them to notice colors of carpets, and to tell what colors 
would look well for furniture -covering, wall-paper, etc., in the 
same room, with the given color. 

VL 

Object. — To lead pupils to observe the effect of black 
and white grounds upon colors, etc. 

Interesting experiments may be made which will lead the pu- 
pils to observe how colors arc affected by white, black, or other 
colors. Place red, blue, green, purple, orange, yellow, etc., sep- 
arately upon white paper, and upon a black surface, and upon 
surfaces of other colors, and let the pupils notice the differences 
in their brightness and fulness when seen in these different posi- 
tions. 

Call out two girls, each with dark hair and dark complexion. 
Place on one child a light-blue cape or shawl, on the other a red 
or pink one. Request the pupils to tell which color is most be- 
coming to these girls. Place other colors upon these girls, and 
let the cliildren tell whether they look well or not. 

Call out girls with light hair and light complexion, and pro- 
ceed in a similar manner, leading the children to determine which 
colors appear best on them. 



124 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

During all the lessons on harmony of color, as well as in the 
previous lessons, you should bear in mind that your chief pur- 
pose is to train the pupils to distinguish the differences, resem- 
blances, and relations of color, and that you can succeed in doing 
this only by exercises that will cause the pupils to use their own 
powers of observation. 

In conclusion, let me add that during every lesson on color 
great care should be taken to give the pupils abundant experience 
toith colors ; and in all your efforts to teach them the important 
facts in relation to this subject, let your chief reliance for success 
be placed upon that which you induce the child to perceive and 
do for itself. 

, „ , Name of Pigment or Paiut 

Name of Color. ^j^^^ ^,i„ p^.^^^^^ j^^ 

Red Carmine, madder lake, Chinese vermilion. 

Orange Red-lead, cadmium yellow. 

Yellow Chrome yellow, gamboge. 

Green Paris green, emerald green. 

Blue Turquoise blue, Prussian blue. 

Dark blue Ultramarine, indigo. 

•^. , , < Mix Cliinese vermilion, turquoise blue, and 
( white, using most of the blue. 

p , S Mix carmine and ultramarine, using most 

^ ( of the red. 

Each color may be made lighter by mixing pure tuhitc with it. 

Imperfect representations of some of the primary and second- 
ary colors may be produced by a solution of chemicals, — inter- 
esting experiments with such solutions may be shown by any 
^Iruggist, — but the mixture of two primary colors, thus produced, 
will not form a corresponding secondary color, as with the mixt- 
ure of paints. 



PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. 125 



PKOPERTIES OF OBJECTS. 

[Supplementary to Lessons on Qualities in Primary Object Lessons.] 

The lessons on Qualities in Primary Object Lessons 
[pages 3i5-364] liavc for their cliief purpose the devel- 
opment of the several senses of young pupils, by train- 
ing them to discover given qualities in different objects, 
and thereby teaching them habits of careful observation. 
Those lessons on qualities were also intended to prepare 
the pupils for the succeeding Lessons on Objects [pages 
365-406], through which they learn to discover what qual- 
ities belong to given objects, and which of those qual- 
ities make the objects most useful. The lessons on ob- 
jects were designed further to teach that objects are adapt- 
ed to their respective uses because they possess certain 
qualities, and also to show how those qualities lit the ob- 
ject for the purpose for wliich it is commonly used. 

It is intended by these lessons on the Properties of Ob- 
jects to teach the pupils to distinguish those other quali- 
ties which, though less palpable, enable us to determine 
what substances compose the different objects, and there- 
by guide the learner to a more comprehensive and practi- 
cal knowledge of objects and their uses. It is understood 
that the pupils will have become familiar with the com- 
mon qualities of objects, by means of previous lessons, 
before the following lessons are given ; therefore, the 
teacher may use the knowledge thereby gained to teach 
the pupils additional facts about objects. 



12G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SUBSTANCES. 

Teacher's Introduction.— To-day I shall try to teach you 
something new about objects. You know that some objects are 
brittle, others tough, elastic, combustible, transparent, absorbent, 
fusible, soluble, ductile, etc., and that the objects are used to make 
different things because they possess some of these qualities. You 
also know that some things are made of wood, as chairs, tables, 
doors, and various parts of houses ; you know that some things 
are made of iron, lead, silver, steel, as stoves, nails, shovels, liam- 
mers, pipe, spoons, forks, knives, and other tools; that some things 
are made of leather, as shoes, boots, harnesses, saddles, trunks ; 
other things are made of stone and -brick, as slates, houses, walls, 
walks, bridges. Now, if you will think about these objects, you 
will remember that wood, iron, leather, and stone differ from each 
other very much. Some of them are combustible, while others 
are not ; some are fusible, while others are not ; but these are not 
the differences which I wish you to learn now. 

Each of these objects of which things are made — as wood, iron, 
lead, stone, leather — is called a substance. I will write the word 
on the blackboard, and you may name each letter as I make it : 

s ti b s t a n c e . 

"What did I call this word? 

Pupils. Substance. 

T. William may spell the word, and name some substance. 

Some substances are hard, like stone, iron, silver ; some are soft, 
like cotton, silk, fur ; some are heavy, like lead, silver, stone; some 
are light, like feathers, sponge, cork. Thus you see that sub- 
stances have many different qualities; that qualities do not make 
substances, but that substances possess qualities. Qualities be- 
long to substances. A substance is a thing which can be per- 
ceived, or used, or made into something to be used. It is the 



CLASSES AND KINDS OF SUBSTANCES. 127 

material of which anything is made. Now you may tell me what 
a substance is. 

Pupils. A substance is that of which anything can he made. 
A substance is something that ive can j^crceive by a sense. 

Teacher. You may name the substances that you can think of, 
and I will write the names on the blackboard. 

P. Wood, coal, ashes, sand, stone, bark, clay, brick, slate, iron, 
lead, silver, gold, water, cork, cotton, wool, silk, fur, leather, bone, 
ivory, wheat, corn, turnip, apple, peach, glass, ice, milk, etc. 

T. Now, if you will look at the names of these substances, and 
think about them, you will notice that they are not all alike. I 
will try in our next lesson to teach yoa to distinguish different 
kinds of substances, and to arrange them in groups or classes. 

CLASSES AND KINDS OF SUBSTANCES. 

Second Lesson. — T. You have already learned that all 
substances are not alike ; now I will try to teach yoa about 
the kinds and classes of substances, and how to distinguish each 
class. First, I will give you another word which means about 
the same as substance ; that word is matter. "When I use the 
■word matter^ you may know that I mean cither all kinds of sub- 
stances, or that of which anything is composed. Thus, all animals 
are matter; all flowers, plants, and trees are matter; all sand, stone, 
iron, silver, and gold are matter. By observing these various sub- 
stances you will discover that all matter is not alike; it may be 
divided into classes and kinds. 

One class of matter, such as we see in animals, is arranged into 
parts for specific uses, as eyes, teeth, nails, hair, feathers, skin, 
flesh, blood, bones, etc. Another class of matter, such as we see 
in plants, is also arranged into different parts for other uses, as 
roots, bark, leaves, sap, wood, fruit, flowers, etc. 

Another kind of matter has no parts for a specific use, as stone, 
sand, clay, iron, lead, ice, water, etc. 

Now, we call all matter that is arranged into pai'ts for specific 
uses — as parts of animals and plants — organized matter ; and we 
call all matter that has no part of it arranged or fitted for any 



128 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

particular use, iinorganized matter. To show me whether you 
understand wliat these terms mean, you may name things that 
belong to the organized matter. 

Pupils. Wool, feathers, hair, teeth, eyes, skin, wood, sap, bark, 
leaves, fruit, etc. 

Teacher. Now you may name things that belong to the un- 
organized matter. 

P. Rocks, clay, slate, sand, ice, iron, lead, tin, silver, water, etc. 

Animals. — T. Very good. Now you can easily learn to dis- 
tinguish the different classes of substances. You know that some 
things have life nud feeling, and breathe, and take food, and move 
about by their own power. Such things we call Animals. Wlio 
will tell me what animals have ? 

P. Animals have life and feeling. 

T. What can animals do? 

P. Animals can breathe, take food, and move. 

T. I will write it on the blackboard, and you may copy it : 

An animal has life and feeling ; it takes food, and can move 
itself. 

Animal Substances. — Sometimes we see parts of an animal — 
something that once belonged to an animal — such as horn, hair, 
fur, feathers, skin, glue, tallow, bone, wool, etc. ; these things are 
called animal substances. An animal substance is something that 
once formed a part of an animal. 

I will now write some words on the blackboard, and you may 
tell me which are names of animals, and which are names of ani- 
mal substances. [Teacher writes three columns ; two of animals, 
and one of animal substances.] 

1. 2. 3. 



Cat, 


Fur, 


Eagle, 


Dog, 


Hair, 


Fish, 


Cow, 


Wool, 


Fly, 


Sheep, 


Horn, 


Ant, 


Ilcn, 


Bone, 


Bug, 


Duck. 


Feathers. 


Snake. 



ANIlLi.L SUBSTANCES. 129 

Teacher. Now, which words are names of animals ? 

Pupils. Those in the first and third columns. 

T. What do the words in the second column represent ? 

P. Animal substances. 

T. Now let us examine these words, and see if each of those 
in the first and third columns represents something that has life 
and feeling. 

P. I think all of them do represent something having life and 
feeling. 

T. Well, does each word represent something that takes food 
or eats? 

P. Yes. 

T. Does each word represent something that can move itself? 

P. Yes. 

T. Then all of those words represent animals. Now let us 
examine the words in the second column. Here is a piece of 
feather ; did this ever form a part of an animal ? 

P. Yes ; a part of a bird. 

T. Can you say that fur, hair, wool, horn, and bone once 
formed parts of animals ? 

P. Yes. 

T. Then you are correct. All the words in the second column 
are names of animal substances. Now you may take your slates 
and write the names of ten animals, and the names of ten animal 
substances. 

Third Lesson. — T. Some things, I told you, have life and 
feeling. There arc other things that have another kind of life, 
but which have no feeling. Some things, you know, have the 
power of motion. There are other things which have no power 
of motion. We will now talk about those things which have 
life, but not the power of motion. 

Plants. — Here, in this pot of earth, is a flower ; it is also 
called a plant. It grows, sends out leaves, buds, and blossoms. 
But if you should remove it from the earth, or neglect for a long 
time to water it, the plant would die. If a plant can live and 
die, it must possess life. It has what we call plant-life. 

6* 



130 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. . 

Now, if you should pinch a plant with your fingers, or cut !t 
with a knife, do you think the plajit would feel pain ? 

Pupils. No. Plants have no feeling. 

Teaxher. Certainly they have not such feeling as you and other 
animals liave, although they may be killed. 

The plant takes food from the moist earth by means of its fine 
thread-like roots. Water, by remaining in the soil, dissolves some 
of its nourishment, and this moisture is taken up by the fine 
roots of the plant or tree, and carried through the little pores 
to the stem, and branches, and leaves, and blossoms. The water 
thus taken up is what constitutes the juice or sap of the tree. 
This sap flows through all parts of the plant very much as the 
blood flows through all parts of our bodies. The plant also takes 
food from the air by means of its leaves, which are filled with 
thousands of very little holes, called pores. It seems to breathe 
through the pores in its leaves, and by means of these it also 
takes food frorii tlie air. 

Thus you see ilmi plants live, take food, and breathe; but^^Zrtn^s 
have no feeling, nor the power of moving from 2)lace to p)lace. 
Their life is not the saipe as that of animals ; they do not take 
food in the same way as animals do ; they do not breathe as ani- 
mals breathe. 

All trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, vines, and mosses arc plants. 
They are also sometimes called vegetables. Vegetables have life ; 
they take food ; they grow in or from the earth; but they have 
no feeling, and no poioer of moving themselves. 

Now listen while I read to you something which I found about 
vegetables and animals in a very interesting book :* 

" Only observe the air and food which a tree requires to keep it 
alive. Its roots suck up the juices which they find in the earth ; 
and by some wonderful power which the great Creator has put in a 
tree, these juices are made to run up the stem. They run up partly 
under the bark, but mostly through tiie cells or holes in the fresh 
wood that was made during the former year; and these juices run 
up the stem, something in the way that water runs up the sides of a 
piece of sugar; only in tlie trees these juices do not stop, but go on 

* The Observing Eye. 



ox VEGETABLES AND ANIMALS. 131 

till they reach the leaves. Now every leaf is full of innumerable 
little holes, through which air rushes in and mixes with the druwn- 
up juices ; and as every leaf is made up of a top skin and of an 
under skin, with fine fibres running between them, the fresh sap 
runs along the top part of the leaf, and then passes to the under- 
side of the leaf During this passage through the leaf, the air 
changes the quality of the pumped-up juices. 

" Sometimes the air prepares the sap to become sweet, sometimes 
sour or bitter ; sometimes it prepares it to turn to a clear gum, some- 
times to a thick juice like tar, just according to the laws which the 
wise Creator has seen it good to establish. As soon as the air has 
made this change, the saj) flows back into the tree, and going down 
under the bark, it forms a band of new wood, and likewise uourishes 
the woody fibre of the great trunk. 

"Animals have no roots by which to gather up the nourishment 
they require. Their food is received by a mouth, and passes down 
into a cavity called the stomacli, where it is melted or dissolved. 
The juices drawn out of the received food are then carried all over 
the animal by innumerable little tubes, called arteries and veins. 
Yet air must always mix with these juices, or the animal will die. 
Some creatures draw the air into their blood through little holes in 
their sides — flics do tliis ; others draw the air in by gills — such as 
fishes; others draw air down into the chest by breathing. In the 
chest the air meets with the new juices, and turns them to a bright 
red. This bright-red blood keeps the bodies of all back-boned ani- 
mals warm, and makes them grow. 

" So far we have seen that both vegetables and animals want two 
things : they want food and air. What, then, is the diflereuce be- 
tween a plant and an animal ? The great difference is that vegeta- 
bles always absorb, or take up their food l)y the roots, or outside 
of their bodies; while animals always absorb or take up the juices 
of their food from cavities in the inside of their bodies. And these 
two modes of support make an important ditference in vegetable 
and animal life. Vegetables become fastened down in one place, 
that tlieir roots may absorb the moisture around them ; while ani- 
mals carrying their food with them are generally left at liberty to 
move about. Then, again, vegetables have no feeling and no wills ; 
while animals feel pain, and not only move about from place to 
place, but have strong wills." 

Teacher. Now wlio will tell mc what a plant or vegetable is? 
Pupils. A plant or vegetable is something that has life, takes 
food, but has no feeling, and cannot move itself. 



132 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



Vegetable Substances. — Thin2:s that once formed a part of a 
tree or vegetable are called vegetable substances — as wood, bark, 
nuts, fruit, flax, cotton, tea, coffee, sugar, grains, straw, flowers, etc. 



Fourth Lesson. — Review. The teacher may now men- 
tion various articles — as corn, wheat, sheep, hens, flowers, vines, 
pigeons, hawks, flour, wool, feathers, starch, tea, sugar, hair, cows, 
etc. — and request the children, as each is named, to tell whether 
it is an animal or vegetable, an animal substance or a vegetable 
substance. 

Afterward the children should be requested to mention several 
animals, while the teacher writes their names upon the black- 
board ; then several vegetables, in the same manner ; also to men- 
tion animal substances and vegetable substances in a- similar man- 
ner, and the teacher to write the names upon the blackboard. 

The teacher may extend this subject, when the age and attain- 
ments of the pupils make it appropriate, to some classifications of 
vegetable and animal substances. This may be commenced by re- 
questing the pupils to mention substances for each column, while 
the teacher writes the Avords in their proper places, after head-lines 
have been written on the blackboard as follows, viz. : 

VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES USED 
For Food. For Clothing. For Other Purposes. 

Corn, beans. Cotton, Cotton, flax, hemp, and straw 

Pease, wheat, Flax, for 'paper. 

Potatoes, Hemp, AVood for houses, furniture, 

Beets, India-rubber, carriages, fuel, uteiisi Is, ate. 

Onions, Palm-leaves, Indigo, logwood, madder, saf- 

Cabbage, turnips, Straw. fron, and various barks, for 

Apples, peaches, ' coloring. 

Oranges, grapes, Camphor and other gums. 

Berries, nuts, castor and other oils, for 

Suo'ar. medicine. 

The same plan may be pursued with animal substances, writing 
on the blackboard as follows, viz. : 



SUBSTANCES : MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. 



133 



ANIMAL SUBSTANCES USED 



For Food. 


For Clothing. 


For Other Purposes. 


Beef, pork, 


Wool, 


Leather for harnesses, shoes, 


Mutton, fish, 


Fur, 


bookbinding, trunks. 


Veal, lamb, 


Silk, • 


Horn for buttons, knife-han- 


Tiirkc}^, chicken, 


Leather, 


dles, combs. 


Eggs, butter. 


Uair. 


Bone for buttons, handles. 


Cheese, milk. 




Ivory for keys ofjiianos. 



Fifth Lesson. — Mineral Substances. Teacher. We have 
been talking about things that have life, and those that once 
formed a part of something that had life. Now, can any of the 
children tell me whether they ever saw anything that has no life, 
and that is not a part of any animal or vegetable ? 

Pupils. Yes ; a stone, a piece of iron, salt, silver, glass, gold, 
sand, slate-pencil, copper, chalk, coal, etc. 

T. Now let us see how many ki7ids of substances \yQ have found: 
those that have life and feeling and self-motion, as animals ; those 
that have life, but no feeling nor self-motion, as vegetables; and 
those that have neither life, nor feeling, nor motion ; these arc 
called minerals. Now write on your slates what I tell you about 
these three classes of substances. 

Mineral. — A mineral has no life, no feeling, no self-motion, and 
does not take food. A mineral is obtained from the earth, and is 
a part of the earth, A mineral has no parts arranged for any 
particular purpose, as roots, sap, leaves, feet, hands, etc. It has 
no organs. A mineral is not an organized substance. 

Vegetable. — A vegetable has life ; it grows in or from the 
earth ; it takes food from the earth. Its food is unorganized 
matter, or a mineral substance. A vegetable has roots, trunk, 
branches, leaves, bark, sap, each designed for a special purpose. 
These arc its organs. It is called an organized substance. 

Animal. — An animal has life ; it moves about tlie earth ; it 
takes for food organized matter, either vegetable or animal sub- 
stances. 



134 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

An animal has organs for seeing, for breathing, for eating, for 
hearing, for feeling, and for moving about. It is called an organ- 
ized being. 

Now tell me what both the vegetable and animal have. Toll 
me what both the vegetable and animal do. Tell me what the 
animal does that the vegetable and mineral cannot do. 

The teacher may now write on the blackboard the following 
head-lines, also the names of substances, as the pupils tell in which 
column the names mentioned should be written : 

Mineral. Vegetable. Animal. 

Stone, iron. Grass, flowers, Cat, horse, 

Lead, water. Coffee, tea, Fly, bird. 

Ice, brick. Sugar, starch. Cow, moth. 

Salt, coal, Wheat, potatoes. Snail, fish. 

Slate, chalk. Apples, nuts. Ant, boy. 

Teacher. You have already learned that there are three kinds 
of substances : minerals, vegetables, and animals ; that animals 
and vegetables have life, and that minerals have no life. Now 
can you tell me what animals do to sustain life ? 

Piqnls. They take food. 

T. Which do they eat — animals, vegetables, or minerals ? 

P. Some animals cat other animals, and some eat vegetables. 

T. Can you tell what animals cat other animals, and what ani- 
mals eat vegetables. 

P. The cat eats mice and birds ; the dog will eat the flesh of 
other animals; the lion, tiger, hawk, and eagle cat other animals. 
The cow, horse, sheep, goat, hen, goose, and many birds cat vege- 
table substances. 

T. Can you name any animal that takes minerals for its food ? 

P. I cannot. 

T. Animals cannot live on mineral substances alone. Some 
animals must take vegetable food, and thus produce animal food 
of their own flesh. Some animals eat the flesh of other animals; 
but animals could not live without vegetables to change mineral 
substances into conditions suitable for food. Thus you see that 
animals depend on vegetable life for their food, and vegetables 
depend on minerals for tlieir food. 



SUBSTANCES : MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. 135 

The rain, sunlight, heat, and frosts soften the rocks, and cause 
them to crumble into fine earth, or soil. The moisture, warmth, 
air, and sunlight cause the plants to grow. By some wonderful 
process they obtain food from the fine soil at their roots, and ivom 
the air around their leaves, and thus change their food into a new 
substance that we call vegetable. This new substance, in turn, be- 
comes food for animals, and it is again changed into other sub- 
stances that form the flesh and bones of the animal. Thus you 
may see how each kind of substance depends upon each of the 
other kinds. The plants take the mineral substances of the earth 
and air, and change them into vegetable substances ; the animals 
take the vegetable substances, and change them into animal sub- 
stances. 

Minerals are inorganic matter ; vegetables and animals are or- 
ganic matter. Minerals furnish the materials for vegetables ; veg- 
etables furnish the materials for animals. Animal life depends 
vj)on vegetable life for supj)ort ; vegetable life depends iqyon min- 
erals for siipjiort. Plants j)roduce ; animals consume. Without 
plants, animals would 2>erish. 



136 MANUAL or OBJECT-TEACHING. 



SUBSTANCES. 

MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 

Model lessons arc apt to become formal ; do not try, 
therefore, to commence all lessons in the same manner. 
Sometimes begin bj telling the pupils something about 
the subject ; sometimes by requesting tliein to tell some- 
thing about it ; sometimes by questions. Surprises are 
frequently more effective in arresting attention than the 
best of prepared introductions. Try to make the lessons 
real and life-like to the children. At times let them tell 
what they see in the object, or what they know about it ; 
at other appropriate times tell them new facts, when they 
most need them. Never tell them facts. for the sake of 
the telHng, but to meet a pressing want on the part of 
the pupils, which they cannot themselves supply by ordi- 
nary efforts. 

The aim in these pages is to supply a sufficient amount 
of information on a variety of subjects, with notes of les- 
sons and suggestive exercises, to furnish teachers with 
abundant materials for interesting and profitable object- 
lessons. 

Where lessons arc written out they are intended chief- 
ly to illustrate the general manner of giving them. The 
notes of lessons are furnished to point out tlie important 
facts, and to indicate an orderly presentation of them ; 
while the information /"o^' lessons on other subjects is de- 
signed to furnish accessible matter necessary for arrang- 
ing new lessons. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 137 

No one must suppose fur a moment that the range of 
subjects and lessons here presented exhausts tlie treasures 
of this interesting fickl ; they are barely first steps into 
regions almost boundless in the extent and variety of ma- 
terials suitable for object-teaching; and they aim to point 
the way in which teachers may lead their pupils to a prac- 
tical study of the world around them. 

In conducting lessons on objects with these substances, 
the pupils should be led to give sj^ecial attention to tJiose 
qualities and ]) rope Hies lokich constitute their chief value, 
and which cause them to be used for their respective pur- 
poses. Teachers should prepare for giving the lesson by 
selecting the subject and deciding which are the impor- 
tant facts to be taught. The substance about which in- 
struction is to be given, and other materials for illus- 
trating the lesson, should be provided beforehand. On 
going before the class the teacher should first ascertain 
what the pupils already know concerning the subject, and 
thus determine where the proper place is to begin the les- 
son. And the teacher should be able at once to present 
any fact which the condition of the pupils may indicate as 
needed. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 
CLOVES. 

Before commencing this lesson the teacher should procure a 
few cloves for the pupils to examine, and suspend maps of the 
hemispheres, that the location of the places named may be pointed 
out before the class. 

Teacher. IIow many of you can tell me what I hold in my 
hand ? IIow many have tasted cloves ? 

Pungent. — IIow do they make the mouth feel ? Can you tell 
me of other things that have a hot, biting taste? What do we 
call this taste ? 



138 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Aromatic. — Did you ever smell of cloves? Is tlie odor so 
pleasant that you would like to sineil it again ? When anything 
has a strong, pleasant, spicy odor, like that of cloves, we say it is 
aromatic. Can you tell me of any other thing that is aromatic? 

Fragrant. — There is another word which we use in speaking of 
an odor that is pleasant to the smell, but not spicy; it \?, fragrant. 
Some things are fragrant that are not aromatic. A rose is fra- 
grant; cloves are fragrant and aromatic. 

Please notice the shape of these cloves. Did you ever see any- 
thing that resembled this shape ? 

Pupils. Yes ; it has a head, body, or shank, and point, some- 
what like a nail. 

T. This is called a clove because of its shape. Tlie name clove 
comes from clou, a French word for nail, because the clove resem- 
bles a French nail in its shape. 

Its Country. — Now let us find on the map the places where 
cloves grow. The clove is a native production of the Molucca 
Islands, north of Australia. Who will point out these islands? 

The clove was originally produced chiefly on the island of Am- 
boyna. The French introduced the clove-tree into the islands of 
Mauritius and Bourbon, east of Madagascar. Who can show us 
where these islands are ? 

The clove-tree was afterward taken to French Guiana, in South 
America, and from thence to the AVest India Islands. Who will 
point out these places ? 

The clove-tree somewhat resembles a cherry-tree. It grows 
from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and lives from seventy-five 
to one hundred years. It commences to produce cloves when 
eight or nine years old. The trunk of this tree is slender, bark 
smooth, and the leaves remain on the tree during the greater part 
of the year. 

The blossoms grow in clusters — from nine to eighteen in a 
bunch — and bear a slight resemblance to those of the honey- 
suckle. Their color changes from yellow to red. A single tree 
will produce several hundred thousand flowers in a year, and yield 
from five to ten pounds of cloves. The culture of the clove is 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 139 

easy, as the trees require no more attention than cherry -trees. 
The harvest takes place from October to December, 

Cloves are the unexpanded flower -buds, gathered before tlie 
flowers open, and then dried. The calyx tube forms the long 
part of the clove ; the corolla, enclosing the stamens, forms the 
ball in the centre, around which are four pointed leaflets. The 
bunches of flower-buds are gathered by hand, or by means of a 
crooked stick, and dried by a hot sun. 

Oil of cloves is obtained from the juice of the flov/er-stalks. 

Cloves are used for domestic and medicinal purposes, because 
they are pungent and aromatic. 

Now write on your slates answers to the following questions : 
What kind of a substance is a clove ? What are cloves ? Where 
arc they obtained ? What are their qualities ? What are their uses ? 

PEPPER. 

Its Country. — The pepper-plant is a native of the East Indies. 
It is a climbing vine, with stems from eight to twelve feet in 
length. The leaves are dark green, thick and leathery ; broad at 
the base, and pointed at the apex, and resemble the ivy. The 
flowers, which grow in close spikes, are green and insignificant. 
These are succeeded by a compact cluster of round green berries, 
which change to a bright red. The berries are gathered as soon 
as they redden. If allowed to ripen on the vine, they lose their 
pungency, and fall off. 

The plant is propagated by cuttings, and is supported by poles, 
or by trees planted for the purpose, upon which it is trained. The 
vine begins to bear fruit when three or four years old. The best 
crops are produced when the plant is from five to eight years old. 
The vine becomes useless after twenty years. 

The berries are gathered twice a year, and placed on mats to 
dry in the sun, when they become wrinkled and black. 

"White Pepper is produced by soaking the dried berries of 
the black pepper in water until the wrinkled skin becomes soft, 
and then rubbing it off. This process destroys some of the pun- 
gency. 



140 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Uses. — Pepper is used as a condiment for food, and as a pow- 
erful stimulant and tonic in medicine. Its value depends upon its 
pungent quality. 

Cayenne Pepper. — Cayenne pepper is cultivated in large 
quantities in Guiana, South America, and shipped from the port 
of Cayenne. This plant is commonly cultivated in the United 
States, picked while green, and used for pickling. When allowed 
to remain on the stalk until ripe, it becomes bright red. After 
the ripe pods of the Cayenne pepper are picked and dried, they 
are ground, and thus form the red, or Cayenne pepper, used on 
our tables. 

Take your slates and write all you can remember about 'pepper 
— where it grows ; how it grows ; how it is gathered ; where the 
plants arc raised ; the kinds of pepper ; its qualities ; its uses, etc. 

Let the several pupils read what they have written. Call atten- 
tion to faulty statements, and make such suggestions as will tend 
to improve the arrangement of the facts, the manner of presenting 
them, and aid the pupils in the use of good language. 

ALLSPICE, JAMAICA PEPPER, OR PIMENTO. 

"Where it Growa — The pimento-tree, which produces the ber- 
ries commonly known as " allspice," grows abundantly in Jamaica 
and other West India Islands. It attains the height of about thir- 
ty feet. The trunk is gray and shining, and contains numerous 
branches, covered with dark green leaves; and when bruised they 
emit a fine aromatic odor. The blossoms are white and numer- 
ous. A grove of pimento-trees in blossom presents a most beau- 
tiful appearance ; and during the months of July and August it 
perfumes the air with a most fragrant odor. 

When the tree has attained its seventh year the harvesting of 
its berries is commenced. In a favorable season a single tree 
sometimes yields a hundred pounds of dried berries. 

Soon after the flowers disappear the berries are ready for pick- 
ing, for they must be gathered before they ripen, or the berry 
becomes valueless. The berry is nearly twice the size of the 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 141 

common black pepper, and contains two small seeds, closely pack- 
ed in a shell. 

The harvest commences in September, when the green berries 
are gathered by hand. One person on the tree gathers the small 
branches, while children pick up the berries that fall on the ground. 
These berries are spread on floors made for the purpose, and ex- 
posed to the sun for about a week. During this time they are 
frequently turned and winnowed. Daring this drying process 
they change from a green to a brown color. They are then put 
into bags, ready for market. 

This spice is sometimes called by the name of the tree that pro- 
duces it — ^J?/Me«<o ; and sometimes designated by the name of the 
island that produces it in the greatest abundance, and from which 
it is chiefly sent to other countries — Jamaica ; but more common- 
ly it is called allspice^ because it has been said to combine the fla- 
vor of all the other spices. What are its chief qualities? Is it 
pungent ? Is it aromatic ? 

It is used chiefly for flavoring food. Oil of pimento is obtained 
from the leaves. 

AVhy would you call allspice a vegetable substance ? 

Now write all tlic facts you can remember about allspice — wliat 
it is; where it grows; how it is gathered; what are its qualities; 
what are its uses, etc. 

NUTMEG. 

Its Coiintry. — The nutmeg-tree is a native of the Banda Isl- 
ands, in the Indian Archipelago, but is now extensively cultivated 
throughout the East Indies. This tree grows from twenty to 
twenty-five feet in height, and resembles a pear-tree. The flow- 
ers are pale yellow, and grow in small bunches. 

The fruit is of a cream color, and resembles a peach. "When 
ripe, the fleshy part splits into two halves, showing the kernel, or 
nutmeg, surrounded by a stringy covering of a scarlet color, which 
becomes yellow by drying. Tliis net-work sheath has an agree- 
able smell and an aromatic taste, and when dried forms, the arti- 
cle known as mucc. 



142 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. • 

Under the mace part of the nut there is a hard, thin shell of a 
dark brown color, and within this shell is the kernel of the nut, 
which is the real nutmeg used in food. The fleshy part of the 
nutmeg fruit is sometimes used as a preserve. 

There are three nutmeg harvests in a year — April, July, and 
November. The fruit is gathered by means of a hook on a long 
stick. The fleshy part and the mace are removed ; then the nut- 
megs, in their shells, are dried over a slow fire for about two 
months. The nuts will then rattle in the shell, and the shells are 
broken with mallets, and the kernels, or real nutmegs, taken out. 

Nutmegs which have a white, chalky appearance, have been dip- 
ped in lime-water to preserve them from insects. Nutmegs sent 
from the island of Pcnang, where immense quantities are culti- 
vated, are seldom soaked in lime-water. 

A good tree will yield from ten to fourteen pounds of nutmegs 
and mace. The trees commence bearing when about nine years 
old, and sometimes live to the age of seventy-five years. What 
are the chief qualities of nutmegs ? 

Mace is dried in the sun, then sprinkled with sea-water, after 
which it is ready for the market. What arc the principal quali- 
ties of mace ? 

Is mace a vegetable substance ? 

Write on your slates all you have learned about nnfmer/s and 
mace. Tell mc where they grow ; liow prepared for market ; their 
qualities, uses, etc. 

GINGER. 

"Where it Grows. — The ginger- plant, though a native of the 
East Indies, is now cultivated in the West Indies, and in some of 
the warm portions of America. It is a kind of reed, growing in 
a moist soil, from two to three feet high. It has a fleshy stem, 
which grows under ground, like that of the iris, or sweet-flag. 

These fleshy root-stocks are dug up annually after the stems 
wither. The digging usually takes jilace in January and Febru- 
ary. They are cleaned, then gradually scalded in hot water ; then 
they are exposed to the sun until thoroughly dried. Afterward 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. l-i'd 

they arc put into bags wliich liold about one hundred pounds 
each, and sent to market. For making preserved ginger the 
plants need to be only about four months old ; but for the dried 
ginger they must be a year old. 

"White Ginger is prepared by washing and scraping each, root, 
and drying it in the air without scalding. 

Preserved Ginger is made from the young root-stocks, after 
they have been washed and scalded till tender ; then they are 
put into jars and covered with a thin sirup, which is poured off 
after a few days, and a thicker sirup added. This last sirup is 
also poured off, and a still thicker one put on. Sometimes this 
process is repeated four times. These discarded sirups are di- 
luted with water, and used as a cooling drink. 

Ginger is j^nnffent, aromatic, and fibrous. 

Now write on your slates all the facts you can remember about 
ginger — what it is; where it grows; how gathered; how prepared 
for market ; its qualities, uses, etc. 

CINNAMON. 

Where it Grows. — The cinnamon-tree is a native of the island 
of Ceylon, but grows in other parts of the East Indies, While it 
will grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, it is allowed to 
reach only about ten feet under cultivation. Numerous shoots' 
spring from the same root; these are cut, when from a half to 
three-quarters of an inch in thickness, into lengths of about three 
feet each, to be convenient for peeling. The time for cutting the 
shoots is between May and October. The sticks arc taken to a 
shed prepared for the purpose, and the bark is cut open length- 
wise two or three times, according to its size. Next day the bark 
is easily removed in strips. Then it is soaked, and the outer skin 
or bark is removed ; after which, it is first placed in the shade, 
and lastly in the sun, Avherc it dries and rolls up into quills, as we 
find it in the stores. 

Around the places where the peeling of the bark is carried on 
a most exquisite aroma is diffused. The best cinnamon is that 



144 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

peeled from the middle of the shoots — it is quite thin ; that which 
comes from the top of the branch is next in quality ; and the thick 
bark from the base is the poorest. 

The tree blossoms in January. The flowers grow in clusters 
much like those of the lilac. The berries are no larger than 
small pease, and w^hcn boiled they yield an oil which becomes 
hard like wax when cold. This cinnamon u'ctx is sometimes made 
into candles for the use of the court. 

From the roots a species of camphor may be obtained by dis- 
tillation ; from the leaves and the broken pieces of bark cinnamon 
oil is distilled. 

The bark of cinnamon is pungent and aromatic. It is chiefly 
used for domestic purposes. 

"Write on your slates the names of all the pungent substances 
about which you have had lessons. Name those that are aromatic 
jilso. Name those that are fragrant. Name other substances that 
are pungent ; that are aromatic ; that are fragrant. 

Tell what cinnamon is — where and how obtained ; its uses, etc. 

SAGO. 

Did you ever see any sago? What is done with it? How 
many of you have eaten sago pudding ? 

What is Sago ? — I will show you a sample of 2^carl sarjo, such 
as is commonly used in this country. It is a kind of starch made 
from the pith of the sago palm, which grows most abundantly in 
the East Indies. This tree grows to the height of twenty or thir- 
ty feet, and from five to six feet in circumference. It is usually 
cut for obtaining the sago when about fourteen years old. 

How Sago is Obtained. — The trunk of the sago palm consists 
of great numbers of thread-like fibres passing up through its en- 
tire length, and between these fibres is a soft substance which 
readily crumbles into a kind of meal when dried. From this 
meal-like substance the sago is prepared. 

The tree is cut down just before the flower-buds open, and the 
trunk is cut into pieces of about six feet in length ; the outer 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 145 

coating or bark is removed ; cacli piece is put into a bag made 
of plantain-leaf (these bundles weigh about thirty pounds each), 
and these sago bundles are sent to Singapore and China, where 
pearl sago is principally manufactured. 

These sago bags are washed, pounded, and scraped, to remove 
all the meal from the Avoody fibres. This meal or flour is soaked, 
washed, strained, drained, dried, passed through a sieve, and again 
dried over a fire. A single palm v, ill produce from three hundred 
to five hundred pounds of meal. 

Common sago-meal is made into cakes and baked. Sometimes 
it is boiled until it forms a thick glutinous mass, and is then eaten 
by the natives of the Malayan Archipelago. These sago cakes 
will keep for a long time. 

Now take your slates and write answers to the following ques- 
tions : What is sago ? AVhere docs the sago palm grow ? How 
is sago manufactured ? AVrite any other facts about it that you 
remember. Tell what kind of substance it is. 

TAPIOCA. 

Did you ever cat tapioca pudding ? Would you like to know 
what tapioca is ? 

Tapioca is made from the root of a poisonous plant called mcnv 
dioca. This plant holds an important place in the materials for 
the food of Brazil". Its root is remarkable for being highly nu- 
tritious, and also containing a deadly poison. This plant is ex- 
tensively cultivated in Brazil. Its root is very large, sometimes 
weighing twenty or thirty pounds ; in shape it is somewhat like 
the parsnip, and of a fibrous texture. 

How Tapioca is Prepared. — In the process of preparation for 
food, the roots are first boiled and the skin removed ; then the 
root is pulverized by means of a grater. The pulpy material is 
then placed in sacks, put under a press, and the poisonous juice 
squeezed out. The pulp is removed from the sack, broken in 
pieces, and heated until it is dry. In this state it constitutes the 
viandioca or cassava meal, which is white, but coarse. It is made 

7 



l-iG MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

into thin cakes similar to pancakes, and baked. "When dry and 
crisp they are cooled, then packed away for future use. This 
meal is used in many forms of food for the Brazilian tables. 

When the poisonous juice is squeezed out, fine particles of the 
meal, or starch, pass out with it. This starch is allowed to settle, 
the juice is poured off, then the starch is washed several times, 
and afterward dried over a slow fire, which drives out all the 
poisonous properties, and forms that serai-transparent substance 
which we know as tajnoca, from which such excellent puddings 
are made. 

Ilere is some of the tapioca as it appears when sent to market. 

Now write on your slates answers to the following questions: 
Where is tapioca obtained ? AVhat is it made from ? How is 
it prepared ? What effect does heat have on it ? For what is it 
used ? What kind of a substance is it ? 

SUGAR. 

Introductioa — The lesson may be introduced by a conversa- 
tion in which the answers of the pupils suggest succeeding ques- 
tions, somewhat as follows : 

If you had some candy, what would you do with it ? Why do 
you eat candy ? What makes candy sweet ? Where do we get 
sugar ? Docs sugar grow, or is it made ? What is sugar made 
from ? 

Is sugar an animal or a vegetable substance ? AVhy do you call 
it a vegetable substance ? From what vegetables is sugar made ? 
What part of the sugar-cane is used to make sugar ? What part 
of the maple-tree is used to make sugar ? What is done with the 
sap, or juice, to make sugar ? Did you ever see any one make 
sugar ? 

About Making Sugar. — Most of the sugars, molasses, and 
sirups used in this country are made from the juice of the sugar- 
cane, which grows abundantly in some of the Southern States, 
in the West Indies, and in the Sandwich Islands, or made from 
the juice of the sugar-maple, a forest tree common in the North- 
ern States and in Canada. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 147 

The juice of the' sugar -cane, also the sap of the maple, are 
boiled, to evaporate the water, then strained, skimmed, and clari- 
fied, to make it pure ; and then boiled again until it becomes a 
thick, sweet sirup for molasses ; or if sugar is to be produced, 
the sirup is boiled longer, until it will granulate or crystallize as 
it cools. 

About Raising Sugar-cane. — Sugar-cane is raised chiefly from 
cuttings. For the purpose of planting, the top joints of the cane 
are used. The cane is cultivated in rows from four to six feet 
apart, with the plants about two feet apart in the rows. The 
roots of the cane live for several years, but deteriorate after a few 
years ; therefore fresh cuttings are usually planted each year in a 
part of the plantation. The planting is done in the fall. The 
time required for the cane to ripen differs, with the variety of the 
plant, from ten to fifteen months. 

Each root usually sends up several stalks, somewhat resembling 
broom-corn, which grow from six to fifteen feet in height. It 
arrives at maturity in a little more than a year. When the cane 
is ripe — which is generally from February to April — it is cut near 
to the ground, the leaves are stripped off, and the stalks are cut 
into convenient lengths to be taken to the crushing-mill, where 
they are squeezed between iron rollers. The strained juice flows 
into a large vessel, ready to be manufactured into sugar. 

About Obtaining Sap from Sugar-maple. — When warm days 
of spring cause the sap of the sugar-maple to begin ascending to 
supply the buds with nourishment, a hole of about an inch in di- 
ameter is bored into the tree, from one to two inches deep ; and 
just below the hole, or in it, a small spout is fixed to convey the 
sap into a tub or trough. When the nights are cold, and the days 
sunny and warm, a pail of sap may be obtained from each tree 
daily. The sap is gathered in buckets, carried to the sugar-camp, 
which is generally placed near the centre of the maple grove, and 
there it is boiled into sirup. About 40,000,000 pounds of maple 
sugar are made in the United States and Canadas each year. 

Large quantities of sugar are consumed annually. Probably 
200,000 tons are used in the United States; and in all the coun- 



148 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

tries of the world together, about two and a half millions of tons 
of sugar are luade and consumed each year. About ten-twelfths 
of this amount is made from some kind of sugar-cane. 

Beet Sugar. — In France, Belgium, and Germany sugar is man- 
ufactured from the sugar-beet; and it is estimated that at least 
350,000,000 pounds of beet sugar are manufactured annually in 
Europe. 

Now take your slates and write the necessary facts about sugar 
to complete the following statements, and also add other facts 
concerning it : 

Sugar is made from , and of . The sap of the 

maple is obtained in , by . It is made into mo- 
lasses and sugar by . 

The juice of the sugar-cane is obtained by . It is made 

into sugar by . In some countries sugar is also made 

from . 



Each year about pounds of sugar are consumed . 

COFFEE. 

"What is coffee? What is this hind of drink made from? 
Where does the coffee-bean grow ? Ilow many would like to 
learn more about coffee? 

Coffee-tree. — The coffee-tree is a native of Arabia, and the use 
of its berries, it is supposed, was discovered by the Arabs. This 
tree is now cultivated extensively in the l^last and West Indies, 
and in South America. It flourishes best in elevated regions of 
warm countries. 

The trees are usually raised from seed sown in nursery-grounds. 
The young plants are set in rows on the coffee plantation, from 
five to ten feet apart. The trees are also raised from slips. The 
tree attains the height of six or twelve feet, according to the con- 
dition of the soil and climate. It begins to bear when two or 
three years old, and continues bearing twenty or thirty years. 
The leaves are evergreen, and somewhat like those of the laurel. 
The blossoms are white, and resemble the flowers of the jasmine. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSOXS. 149 

Fruit and Seeds. — The fruit of the coffee-tree is a red berry 
whicli resembles a cherry. The pulp encloses two oval seeds, each 
with a convex and a flat side, which g-row with the flat faces to- 
gether. When ripe, the berries are picked by hand on some plan- 
tations ; on others, cloths are spread beneath the trees, and the 
ripe fruit shaken off. Some planters remove the pulp by a pulp- 
mill as soon as the berries are gathered, then wash and dry the 
seeds. Some planters allow the berries to dry for a few weeks ; 
after which the husk and dry pulp is separated from the seeds 
by a mill. 

After the pulp lias been removed, and the seeds are dry, they 
are passed through a mill to remove the membranous skin that- 
surrounds the kernel. The beans, as these seeds are commonly 
called, are afterward paclvcd in bags ready for the market. 

Here are a few coffee-beans for you to examine. What differ- 
ences do you observe in them ? 

The yellowish and the greenish beans are just as they came 
from the coffee plantations ; the brown beans have been roasted, 
and are ready to be ground, and now the beverage known as 
coffee may be prepared from it. 

Kinds of Coffee. — The bean of the Mocha coffee is small, and 
dark yellow. It comes from Eastern Turkey and Arabia. The 
bean of the Java coffee is larger, and a pale yellow. This comes 
from Java, and other islands of the East Indies. The bean of the 
Rio coffee, also that of the West India coffee, has a greenish-gray 
tint. The flavor of the Mocha coffee is considered superior to 
that of the other kinds. 

It is estimated that 600,000,000 pounds of coffee are raised in 
the world annually. 

To which class of substances does coffee belong? 

Now take your slates and state — where coffee was first found ; 
where it is now raised ; how it grows ; how it is prepared for 
market ; how the beans arc prepared for making the coffee we 
drink ; the names of different kinds of coffee ; and how much is 
raised annually. 



150 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

SALT. 

Kinds of Salt. — In giving a lesson on salt, samples of different 
kinds of salt should be shown the pupils, as table-salt, hay-salt, or 
TurJc's Island salt, rock-salt. Let the pupils examine each kind 
by feeling, by observing the differences in the forms of the crys- 
tals, and by taste. The natural shape of a salt-crystal is a cube, 
but these combine into forms somewhat like a hollow pyramid, 
or hopper-shaped. When the water is evaporated rapidly by fire, 
the crystals are small ; the slow evaporation by the sun produces 
large crystals. 

Its Solubility. — Let the pupils see that salt is soluble in cold 
water as readily as in hot water ; that it i^ not soluble in alcohol ; 
that it will crystallize by evaporation. Require them to tell its 
common uses. 

Tell the pupils that salt is necessary to both animals and vege- 
tables ; that vegetables absorb it from the soil ; that food would 
not digest without salt; that it is always present in the blood. 
It is composed of two substances: one, sodium, a metal which has 
such affinity for oxygen that it will take fire and burn by throw- 
ing it upon Avarm water ; the other, chlorine, a gas which would 
suffocate us if we should breathe it clear. These two substances, 
when combined, are called chloride of sodium, wlndi is the chemi- 
cal name for common salt. 

How Obtained. — Salt is obtained by evaporating salt-water, 
and by digging it from salt-mines, in which form it is called rock- 
salt. Most of the salt used in this country is obtained from salt- 
water. It is known as table-salt, or common salt. Bay-salt and 
Txirk's Island salt are manufaritured by evaporating sea-water by 
the heat of the sun. Each gallon of sea-water contains about four 
ounces of salt. 

Where Pound. — The most extensive salt-springs from which 
salt is manufactured are those at Salina and Syracuse, in the State 
of New York. These springs furnish from 5,000,000 to 0,000,000 
bushels of salt each year. The most extensive salt-mines are 
those of Poland, Europe, which are supposed to embrace a bed of 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 151 

solid salt 500 miles long, 20 miles wide, and 1200 feet thick. The 
excavations are so long and wide that houses, stables, storehouses, 
churches, and streets arc cut out of solid salt. In the chapels ev- 
erything is made of the rock-salt — walls, doors, altars, crucifixes, 
pedestals, and statues. The air in these mines is dry, and free 
from bad gases, and everything is kept in a perfect state of pres- 
ervation. These mines have been worked many hundreds of years. 

In the interior of Africa salt is not commonly found by the 
natives, and they will sell a slave for a handful of salt. The chil- 
dren there suck pieces of salt with as much delight as boys and 
girls do their sticks of candy in this country. 

Among the Arabs and Turks salt is a symbol of fidelity. A 
man who has partaken of salt with an Arab is bound to him by 
the laws of hospitality, and is treated as a friend. 

To which kind of substances docs salt belong ? 

AVrite all you can remember about salt; its kinds, its uses; 
Low obtained; where found; shape of.its crystals; about its sol- 
ubility; its chemical composition and name; about the salt-mines 
of Poland ; its scarcity in Africa ; its symbol of fidelity, and other 
facts. 

SODA. 

How Obtained. — Soda Avas formerly obtained from the ashes 
of marine plants. It is now manufactured from common salt by 
the use of acids, charcoal, lime, heat, and water. Large manufac- 
tories are engaged in the process of compelling salt, by the aid of 
the above agents, to lose its saltness and become the common soda 
so extensively used for cleaning puiposes, for making soap, and in 
the manufacture of glass. 

Carbonate of Soda. — This form of soda, sometimes called 
" washing-soda," is known to the chemist as carbonate of soda ; 
this is used in making soap. 

Bicarbonate of Soda, or hi/dro-sodic carbonate, is produced by 
combining carbonic-acid gas with carbonate of soda. This form 
of soda is used in bread-making, and in the blue papers of Seidlitz- 
powders ; the white papers contain tartaric acid. Bicarbonate of 



152 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

soda contains twice as much carbonic acid as the carbonate of soda 
has. It is the escape of the carbonic acid which causes the effer- 
vescence produced by these soda powders. 

"Write about soda — its uses ; how^ made ; different kinds, etc. — 
and state whether it is a vegetable or a mineral substance. 

ROAR 

Uses. — When you wash your hands in the play-ground, can 
you make them as clean as when you wash them at home? "Why 
not ? Why is soap used ? When is soap used ? Who uses soap 
for washing clothes ? 

What other substances are sometimes used in washing clothes ? 
Why are soda and borax used in washing clothes ? 

Qualities. — When soap is put in the water and rubbed about, 
what happens to the soap? It melts. What quality has any- 
thing that dissolves in water ? What change is made in the ap- 
pearance of the water by the soap? Uow does water feel that 
has had soap dissolved in it ? 

How Soap is Made. — Soap is made of fat, or oil, and an al- 
kali. Potash and soda are alkalies. An alkali made by soaking 
wood-ashes in water is called li/e. An alkali has an acrid, hot, 
and disorganizing nature. Carbonate of soda is not so strong an 
alkali as potash, and is less liable to produce injury. 

The alkali decomposes the fat or oil, sets free the glycerine of 
the oil (which dissolves in water), and the fatty acid unites with 
the alkali and forms the soap. The alkali is the chief agent in 
cleansing. 

Kinds of Soap. — The kinds of soap — named from their condi- 
tion — are hard soap and soft soap. Soft soaps are made by using 
potash or lye as the alkali. Hard soaps are made by using soda 
as the alkali. Tallow will make a harder soap than oil. 

Common Bar Soap is made from fat, soda, and resin. 

Castile Soap is made from olive oil and soda, and colored by 
an oxide of iron. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 153 

Fancy Soaps arc essentially common soaps mixed with differ- 
ent aromatic oils and coloring substances. 

Soap cleanses dirt from clothes by tlie alkali in the soap dis- 
solving the oily, greasy portion of the dirt, and thus setting the 
whole free. The ancient Gauls made soap of ashes and tallow. 
Why did they use ashes ? 

Now write on your slates all you can remember about soap ; 
how made, kinds, qualities, uses, etc. 

CANDLES. 

Call attention to the use of candles ; where used ; when used ; 
other substances used to give light. Show a candle ; let pupils 
point out and name its parts. Wick, made of loosely twisted 
cotton, extending lengthwise through the middle of the candle. 
Tallow, the yellowish -white substance around the wick, which 
melts when the candle is lighted, flows up the wick, burns, and 
makes the light. Shape of the candle — cylindrical ; one end flat 
and circular, the other end tapering and conical. 

"What Candles are Made from. — Candles are made of tallow, 
sjyennaceti, wax, stcarine, and 2^(i>'(iffi)iC- 

How Tallow -candles are Made. — Tallow -candles are some- 
times made by dipping the wicks into melted tallow many times, 
allowing the tallow to harden after each dip. These are known 
as dlp2)ed candles. They are also made by pouring melted tallow 
into moulds in which the wicks have been fastened, and allowing 
it to cool. These are known as mould candles. Candles com- 
posed of other substances than tallow or wax are generally made 
in moulds. 

Wax -candles are made by suspending the wicks over the 
melted wax, and pouring tlie wax repeatedly over the wicks until 
they attain the desired size. 

Spermaceti is a white, semi-transparent substance found in the 
head of the sperm-whale. 

Wax, the substance made by bees from which the comb is 

7* 



154 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

formed. This is melted and strained to form wax for candles. 
Wax-candles are the most expensive of all kinds of light. 

Stearine, or Stearic Acid, is one of the solid substances ob- 
tained when fats are decomposed by a chemical process. It does 
not feel greasy, is firm, dry, and makes an excellent candle. 

ParafBne is a white, waxy, inodorous, tasteless substance, ob- 
tained from distillation of resinous or bituminous materials. It 
is obtained from oil of tar. It readily combines with wax, sper- 
maceti, or stearine; and when used for making candles, it is mixed 
with one of these substances to render it easier to melt by the 
heat of the burning candle. 

The illuminating power of gas is estimated by the number of 
burning candles that its light equals. The gas-light of one burn- 
er generally equals the light of fifteen or twenty candles. 

Now write what you can remember about candles — of the ma- 
terials from which they are made ; how candles are formed ; the 
kinds of candles used ; about" gas-light as compared with candle- 
light ; and any other facts. 

PUTTY. 

Can you tell me what holds the glass in a window ? Who 
uses putty ? Is it used for other purposes than to hold glass in 
windows ? 

Qualities. — Its color is a dull white, somewhat like dough. It 
feels soft and greasy. It can be pressed into any shape. 

It is adhesive — sticks to glass, wood, or any substance. 

It hardens in air — the older the putty, the harder it becomes. 

It is impervious to ivater, and thus keeps the rain from coming 
through windows at the edges of the glass. 

How Made. — It is made of whiting (a finely-ground chalk) 
and boiled linseed-oil, kneaded into a doughy mass and beaten 
with a mallet. 

CAMPHOR. 

Take this vial, smell the liquid in it, and tell its name. Now 
take this semi-transparent gum; notice its soft feeling and its 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 155 

odor, and tell mc wbetlier it smells like the liquid in the vial. 
What is it ? 

The liquid camphor which you see used at home is made by 
dissolving- cainphor-gum, like this piece shown you, in alcohol. 

Where Found. — The camphor-gum is obtained from the cam- 
phor-tree, which grows most abundantly on the islands of Su- 
matra, Borneo, and Formosa. This tree often attains the height 
of one hundred feet, and is from six to ten feet in diameter. The 
camphor-gum is found in masses, and is obtained by splitting the 
trunk in pieces and picking out the lumps with a pointed instru- 
ment. Some lumps have been found as large as a man's arm ; 
and some trees yield twenty pounds of gum ; but commonly not 
more than half of this amount is found in one tree. Camphor 
is also obtained by distilling the chipped wood, and then collect- 
ing the gum from the liquid. 

Camphor-gum is soft, friable, and tough ; very volatile, inflam- 
mable, fragrant, with a strong odor, and is soluble in alcohol. 
When taken in large doses, it is fatally poisonous. It is also 
destructive to insects. 

The wood of the camphor-tree is valuable for making boxes 
and trunks, which will protect clothing kept in them from insects. 

Write a description of camphor — its qualities, uses, where ob- 
tained, etc. 

WHALEBONE. 

Teacher. What have I in my hand ? What can I do with this 
piece of whalebone ? Can you name any of the qualities that 
make whalebone useful ? 

Pujiils. It is tough, fibrous, flexible, light, and clastic. 

T. [Show^s the pupils a piece of a cow's horn, a piece of bone 
and of whalebone. They examine each, after which the teacher 
asks :] Which of these two substances, the horn or the bone, does 
the whalebone most resemble ? 

P. The horn. 

T. That which Ave call whalebone is not a true bone ; it is not 
a part of the common bones in the body of the whale. It is 



150 MANUAL OP OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

found in the mouth of the Greenland whale. It is a horny sub- 
stance, composed of many layers of fibrous plates, which form 
a compact mass where they are attached to the upper jaw ; but 
as they extend downward from six to twelve feet, they become 
divided into coarse, loose fibres, forming a fringe-like enclosure 
along the sides of the mouth. This fringe does not extend across 
the front of the mouth. There arc about three hundred of these 
blades on each side of the mouth, each of which is from eight to 
twelve inches wide at its root, and from one to two inches thick. 
About one ton of Avhalcbonc is sometimes obtained from the 
mouth of a single whale. It varies in quantity and length ac- 
cording to the size of the animal. 

Its Use to the Whale. — The food of this whale consists of 
small shrimps, crabs, fishes, mollusks, and other soft-bodied animals 
which congregate in shoals of millions in the waiters frequented 
by the Greenland and other whales of this kind. The whale feeds 
by swimming through shoals of these minute animals with its 
capacious mouth open, allowing the sea-water, swarming with its 
food, to pass in and flow out 'hrough the back and sides of the 
mouth ; but the multitudes of small animals are retained in the 
mouth by the great fringe strainer of whalebone ; thus the whale 
is enabled to capture its prey by means of the great whalebone 
fringes which line its mouth. 

Its Uses to Us. — AVhalebone may be softened by boiling it, 
and then it can be cut easily into such shapes as are needed for 
its various uses. On cooling, it becomes harder, and of a darker 
color than before boiling. It is used for stretchers of umbrellas 
and parasols ; it is split into fibres and used for brushes, in place 
of coarse bristles; for framework of bonnets; for stiffening stays 
and waists of dresses ; for whip-handles, and various other pur- 
poses in which elasticity is a needed property. 

Since the capturing of whales for their oil has diminished so 
greatly, whalebone has become scarce and dearer. 

Write all yon can about whalebone; what it is; where it is ob- 
tained ; its use to the whale ; its value and uses to us ; its quali- 
ties, etc. 



NOTES OF LESSONS. 157 



NOTES OF LESSONS. 

COTTON. 

Its Uses. — For thread ; for various kinds of cloth — as sheet- 
ing-, drilling, jean, cotton or Canton flannel, gingham, calico, chintz, 
muslin, tarlatan, lace, hosiery, paper. 

What is Cotton? — A soft, downy substance resembling very 
fine wool, which grows in pods of the cotton-plant in warm coun- 
tries. 

How it is Obtained. — The seeds of the cotton-plants are sown 
in rows, four or five feet apart, late in March or in April. The 
plants generally grow from four to six feet high. The blossoms 
are of a pale yellow or a faint purplish color. The pods contain- 
ing the cotton fibre ripen and burst open in August and Septem- 
ber, after which the cotton is picked from the plant. 

The cotton seeds adhere to the cotton fibre when it is picked, 
and the first step toward manufacture consists in separating the 
seeds from the fibre. This is done by a machine called a cotton- 
gin. After this process the cotton is packed in bales of several 
hundred pounds each, and sent to market, from whence it is taken 
to manufactories to be spun into yarn, and woven into different 
kinds of cotton goods. Where is the cotton raised in the United 
States taken to be manufactured ? 

Qualities that make Cotton Useful. — Its fine, long, and strong 
fibres. The long and strong fibres make the thread and cloth 
strong. Its fine, strong fibres make excellent thread. Its fibre 
is not as strong as that of flax. 

"Wliere Cotton is Raised. — In the warm portions of the United 
States, West Indies, South America, Africa, India, and China. It 
is most extensively raised in the United States. 

Require the pupils to write out a statement of all the important 
facts presented in this lesson, and to read the statements before 
the class. Proceed in the same manner with each of the -succeed- 
ing lessons. 



158 MAisUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

FLAX. 

What is Flax ? — The strong fibre of an annual plant, with a 
slender stalk, whicli grows from two to three feet high, covered 
with a strong, fibrous bark. The seed of the flax-plant is sown 
in the spring ; the plant bears small, blue blossoms in June and 
July, and is ready for gathering in August — which is done by 
pulling it up by the roots and tying it in small bundles. 

How Flax is Obtained. — The small bundles of the plant are 
placed on wet meadows, or under water, where the gluten is soak- 
ed out, and the woody stem becomes brittle by partially rotting. 
The plant is afterward dried, then the woody stems are broken by 
a machine and beaten out. The fibre is then combed by draw- 
ing it over an instrument with long iron teeth, or spikes, set in 
a board, which forms a sort of comb, called a hatchel or hackle. 
By this combing process the coarser fibres are separated from the 
fine and soft ones, and the flax is made i-eady for spinning. 

Uses of Flax. — It is used for strong thread for sewing cloth, 
carpets, and leather, for flsh-lines, cords, and for linen goods. 

Names of Goods made from Flax. — Linen thread, tape, dam- 
ask, white linen, brown linen, cambric, lawn, towels, handkerchiefs. 

Qualities that make Flax Useful. — Its fibre is very long, strong, 
and durable. 

Where it is Raised. — It is grown most extensively in Ireland, 
but is also raised in Scotland, England, Holland, France, Belgium, 
Russia, and other portions of Europe ; also in the United States. 

HEMP. 

What is Hemp ? — The hemp-plant is native of Asia, but is ex- 
tensively cultivated in Russia, and is grown also in other parts of 
Europe and in the United States. The plant is an annual, which 
grows to the height of five or six feet. Hemp is the fibre of this 
plant. It is coarser and stronger than that of flax. If carefully 
examined, it will be seen that each coarse fibre is composed of 
several minute ones twisted spirally. 



NOTES OF LESSONS. 159 

How it is Procured. — Tho hemp is obtained by rotting the 
woody stem of the pLint, breaking it, and then beating it out, 
much in the same manner as is done with flax. 

What is Made of it ? — Cords, ropes, and cables ; sacking, and 
various kinds of coarse, strong cloth. 

WOOL. 

What is Made of Wool. — Yarns, worsteds, flannels, blankets, 
shawls, broadcloth, tweed, and other kinds of cloth ; merino, car- 
pets, rugs, mats, drugget, baize, hosiery, felt, and many other arti- 
cles of woollen goods. 

What is Wool ? — By tho term wool is commonly meant the 
fleecy covering of sheep, which is sheared from them early in 
summer. This name is also given to the covering of some kinds 
of goats, as the Cashmere and Angora goat, of Asia ; and to the 
Llama and Guanaco of South America. Tift Cashmere goat has 
a double covering — one of long, coarse hair, and underneath this 
one of fine, soft wool, from which expensive shawls are made. 
The wool of the Alpaca Llama is fine, silky, and long. It is used 
for alpaca goods and other materials. 

Wool is raised in nearly all countries. The most extensive 
manufactories of cloths and other woollen goods are in England, 
France, Germany, and the United States. 

What kind of a substance is wool ? 

SILK. 

Its Uses. — Tt is used for sewing-silk, ribbons, liandkerchiefs, 
dress-silk, satin, velvet, curtains, furniture-covering, hosiery, gloves, 
gauze, crape. 

What is Silk? — Silk is the fine glossy web of the silk-worm. 
It is stronger than the web of the spider. The silk-worm spins 
this web around itself, in the form of a hollow case called a co- 
coon, before changing into a moth. The cocoons are about one 
inch long, and two-thirds of an inch thick. What kind of a sub- 
stance is silk ? 



ICO MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

About the Silk-worm. — Tlie silk-worm is an insect in the 
form of a caterpillar. It is hatched, by the warmth of the sun, 
from an egg about the size of a pin-head ; and it attains tlie full 
size — two to three inches long — in about eight weeks. During 
this time it changes its skin four or five times. As the old skin 
becomes too small, it bursts near the head, and the caterpillar 
crawls out with a new dress. At each change of its skin the size 
increases. 

The silk-worm feeds on mulberry-leaves while it is growing. 
After eating and growing for about eight weeks, the worm stops 
eating and begins to spin, and continues spinning for about five 
days. While spinning, it moves its head from side to side, as if 
winding the fine silk about ; and the worm grows shorter as it 
spins, and winds itself inside of the cocoon. 

It next changes into a chrysalis, in a dark-brown case, within 
the cocoon. In this condition it remains torpid for two or three 
weeks ; then it changes into a moth, makes a hole in the cocoon 
by softening the threads with a fluid, comes out, lays eggs, and 
soon dies. 

How Silk is Obtained. — In about ten days after the cocoons 
are finished, the insect must 'be killed, to prevent it from making 
a hole in the cocoon, and coming out in the form of a moth. To 
do this they are placed in a heated oven before the time for the 
chrysalis to change to the moth, and thus the insect is killed. 

The cocoons are next put in hot water, which dissolves the gum 
and loosens the thread. The whole is now- stirred with a bunch 
of twigs, which catch the loose ends of the threads. Several of 
these are taken together, to make them strong enough to handle 
and wind upon a reel. The silk is taken from the reel, and tied 
up into hanks ready for the manufacturer. In this state it is 
called rail) silk. These hanks of raw silk are placed on a six-sided 
reel, or swift, and wound on bobbins. The silk is now sorted ac- 
cording to its fineness and quality, and then is ready for spinning 
or twisting. 

This raw silk is sent to a mill, where two or more threads are 
twisted together, and prepared for Avoaving and other purposes. 
Manufacturers usually purchase silk in the raw state. 



NOTES OF LESSONS. IGl 

Before the silk is ready for weaving it must be cleansed by 
boiling it in soapy water. The color is now yellow. To make 
silk white, it must be bleached; to give it other colors, it must 
be dyed. 

The web of a single cocoon is from three to five hundred yards 
in length. About one pound of good raw silk is obtained from 
twelve pounds of cocoons. 

"Where Silk is Raised. — Silk is raised in China, Japan, and 
some other places in Asia; in Italy, France, and other countries 
of Europe ; in South America, and in many parts of the United 
States. Silk goods are most extensively manufactured in France. 

Articles Made of Silk. — Silk for sewing; twist for button- 
holes ; ribbons ; silks, plain, figured, etc. ; satin, crape, velvet, 
gauze, handkerchiefs, shawls, stockings, gloves, poplins, etc. 

LEATHER. 

Its Uses. — Leather, in different forms, is used for inaking boots, 
shoes, gloves, mittens, harnesses, trunks, valises, book-binding, cush- 
ions ; seats for chairs, cars, and carriages ; covers for carriages ; 
cases, belts for machinery, washers, hose for fire-engines ; parch- 
ment, on which valuable documents were formerly written. 

Kinds of Leather. — Calf-skin, kip, cow-hide, morocco, patent- 
leather, kid, Russia-leather, harness-leather, sole-leather, sheep-skin, 
buck-skin, seal-skin, dog-skin, vellum, parchment. 

Prom what the Kinds of Leather are Made. — ■' Calf- skin is 
made from the skins of calves not more than six months old ; 
kip leather, from the skins of young cattle, older than calves; 
coio-hide, from the skins of young cows; sole -leather, from the 
skins of the ox, also of the old cow ; morocco, from the skins of 
goats ; kid, from the skins of kids that are killed wlien too young 
to cat grass ; ji'^'^tcnt-leatheK, a kind of leather covered with a japan 
that gives it a smooth surface and a permanent polish ; Russia- 
leather is made from the skins of calves, cows, goats, sheep, etc., 
by a special process of tanning, in which are used willow-bark, 
red sandal-wood, and an oil, prepared from birch-bark, that im- 
parts to this leather its peculiar odor, and renders it repulsive to 



162 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

insects ; sheejy-skin, made from the skin of the sheep ; buck-skin, 
from the skin of the deer ; dog-shin, from the skin of tlic doc^ ; 
seal-skin, from the skin of the seal ; harness-leather, from thick 
o.\-hidc ; ^ra?r/ime?i/, from the skins of sheep and goats ; vellum, 
from the skin of young calves, tanned in nearly the same manner 
as parchment. 

Hovir Common Leather ia Tanned. — The process of tanning 
implies saturating the skins of animals with an astringent vegeta- 
ble substance, called tannin, so thoroughly that it becomes insolu- 
ble, and incapable of putrefaction. 

Skins are prepared for tanning by first soaking them in lime- 
water, to loosen the hair and the outer membrane ; then they are 
scraped, to remove the hair and the hard cuticle ; then soaked in 
an alkali, to remove the lime ; next they are soaked in a weak so- 
lution of sulphuric acid, which opens the pores of the skin and 
prepares it to receive the tannin more rapidly. At this stage of 
the process the skins, which arc now called peZ^s, are placed in 
pits, or tan-vats, with layers of ground tan-bark between them, 
and the vat is filled with water. The skins are allowed to soak 
in this manner for several months. Sometimes the vats arc emp- 
tied, and the hides placed in the vat again with fresh tan-bark. 
The best leather is prepared by allowing the hides to soak thus 
for about two years. Slow tanning makes the leather soft. 

By means of the astringent property in the liquid in which the 
skins are soaked, they become thicker and firmer, and the pores so 
closed that water does not easily affect the leather. Scraping the 
leather makes it of uniform thickness; rubbing and oiling it makes 
it pliable and soft. 

How the Tamiin is Obtained. — The astringent property in 
which the skins are soaked — the tannin — is obtained chiefly from 
oak-bark and hemlock-bark. Hemlock-bark is more commonly 
used in this country, and oak-bark in Europe. Ilenilock-tanned 
sole-leather is of a darker color than the oak-tanned. 

A cord of hemlock-bark will tan about five hides ; and it takes 
the bark of two or more trees to make a cord. The acorn cup 
and ball of the burr oak of the United States, if collected annu- 



NOTES OF LESSONS.. 103 

ally, would supply tannin for all the liidcs in this conntry, and 
save the great destruction of trees to procure bark for this 
purpose. 

What qualities make leather useful for shoes? 
What kind of a substance is leather ? 

INDIA-RUBBER. 

Its Uses. — For making overshoes, boots, soles of boots, sus- 
penders, tape, cord, braces, bands, rings, air cushions and pillows, 
life-preservers, beds, springs for doors, bearers for springs on rail- 
road cars, bands, balls, tubes. 

It is dissolved and spread on cloth for water-proof garments. 

It is mixed with pitch, sulphur, etc., and made into a hard sub- 
stance, from which combs, knife-handles, cups, and other articles 
are made. 

Used for erasing or rubbing out marks of the black-lead pencil ; 
and this use gives it the name " rubber." 

Properties of India-rubber. — Children should be led to dis- 
cover that India-rubber is soft, flexible, very elastic, tough, durable, 
difficult to cut ; that it is inflammable ; that its elasticity is in- 
creased by warmth, and diminished by cold ; that it is soluble in 
naphtha, spirits of turpentine, and ether; that it is insoluble in 
water, alcohol, and acids ; that it is non-absorbent of water, im- 
pervious to water — hence is water-proof; that it melts by heat, 
and remains sticky and glutinous. 

What is India-rubber ? — It is the juice of trees which grow 
in South America .and in Asia. In India these trees sometimes 
grow to the height of one hundred feet, and twenty feet in di- 
ameter. The best India-rubber, and that principally used in the 
United States, comes from South America. This tree grows 
abundantly in Brazil, along the Amazon. 

How it is Obtained. — During the rainy or cool season of the 
year, deep incisions are made in the bark of the India-rubber (or 
caoutchouc) tree {Jatropha elastica), when a thick, creamy juice, 
of a yellowish white color, flows out. This may be collected in 
bottles, and, if closely corked, can be kept in a fluid state for a 



1G4 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

long time. It soon dries and hardens in the sun, by which proc- 
ess it loses about one-half of its quantity. The drying is hastened 
by placing the juice over a wood fire, and at the same time the 
color is changed from a yellowish white to a color neai'ly black. 
Clay moulds of various shapes, as of bottles and shoes, are made 
by the natives, and the juice is spread over these in successive 
layers, and dried, after which the clay mould is broken up and 
removed. 

In conclusion, require the pupils to state which qualities render 
India-rubber most useful. To which class of substances does In- 
dia-rubber belong ? 

GLASS. 

Its Uses. — It is used for windows, pictures, mirrors, bottles, 
tumblers, goblets, decanters, vases and other ornaments, chande- 
liers, lanterns, spectacles, telescopes, watch-glasses. 

What is Glass ? — A transparent, hard, insoluble, brittle sub- 
stance, made by melting together sand and soda. 

Kinds of Glass. — Crown-glass, sheet-glass (or broad-glass, or 
cylinder-glass), plate-glass, flint-glass, bottle-glass, window-glass, 
stained-glass. 

How Glass is Made. — The materials of which glass is com- 
posed — silicates of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, and lead, 
the proportions varying in different kinds of glass — arc incited 
together by great heat in clay pots. The melted glass is manu- 
factured into an immense variety of articles by the use of a hol- 
low tube, or blowing-pipe, and a few other simple tools. The 
tube is dipped into the melted glass, and a quantity collected on 
the end sufficient for the desired article. The mouth of the work- 
man is then applied to the other end of the tube, and the glass is 
blown into a hollow form, rolled, pressed, twisted, cut, or pressed 
in a mould, to make it assume the desired shape. Melted glass 
is exceedingly ductile^ tcnacmis, and 2)i<^(stic. After the articles 
are made in the desired shape, they are placed in heated ovens to 
cool slowly. 

Crown-glass. — The melted glass is taken from the pot on the 
blowing -pipe, is blown, whirled, and pressed until it becomes 



NOTES OF LESSONS. 105 

globular, with one side flattened. Then an iron rod, called pontil, 
is dipped into the molten glass, and attached to the centre of the 
flattened part, after which the blowing-pipe is removed, leaving 
an opening. This globular glass is now exposed to heat, twirled 
around with gradually increasing rapidity, which causes the open- 
ing to expand, until the glass finally flattens out into a plane sur- 
face four or five feet in diameter. The pontil is then removed, 
and the disk is put in the annealing arch to gradually cool. 

Some windoio-glass is made in this manner, and subsequently 
cut up into panes of the desired sizes. Another mode of making 
window-glass is by a process in which the glass is first formed 
into a cylinder, and then cut open lengthwise and flattened. Glass 
made in this way is known as cylinder-glass, broud-glass, sheet- 
glass, and German glass. 

Sheet-glass. — To make sheet-glass, or cylinder-glass, the work- 
man collects a mass of molten glass around the end of his blow- 
ing-tube ; then, by blowing and rolling, and blowing and swinging 
it in a vertical circle, and heating and repeating the blowing and 
swinging, the end opposite the blowing-tube bursts open : this end 
is trimmed, and the glass has the form of a cylinder. Then the 
blowing-tube is removed from tlie other end, leaving a hole, which 
is expanded to the size of the opposite end of the cylinder. The 
cylinder is then split open, flattened, and placed in the annealing 
oven. 

Plate-glass. — This glass is made by pouring melted glass upon 
a heated iron table of the size required, and with raised edges to 
regulate the thickness. A copper roller is passed over the melted 
glass to make it smooth and even. This plate is then cooled in 
the oven. After this it is ground smooth by rubbing two plates 
together with sand or finely powdered flint between them, and 
finally polished with emery. This glass is used for mirrors and 
for large windows in stores. 

Flint-glass. — This glass is made of white sand, carbonate of 
potash, oxide of lead, and alumina. It melts more easily than 
either crown, plate, or window glass ; is softer, therefore is more 
easily cut and engraved. It is used in the manufacture of table- 



IGG MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUING. 

ware, bottles, decorative articles, lamps, globes, drops, bells, chirn- 
neys, etc. It is made into the various articles for which it is 
used chiefly by means of the blowing-tube, moulds, etc. 

Bottle-glass. — This is made from coarse or common materials, 
and manufactured by blowing and moulding. 

In making glass bottles, where a uniform size and shape is re- 
quired — and especially where letters are to be made in the glass 
— the bottles are shaped by means of a mould which can be closed 
around the unfinished, blown form. 

What qualities render glass suitable for the piuyoses for which 
it is commonly used ? 

To which class of substances docs glass belong? 



SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 

The following list of subjects will suggest topics for 
suitable lessons from which teachers may select those that 
are adapted to tlieir pupils. The information concerning 
many of these subjects will be familiar to teachers. The 
facts needed for lessons on many other subjects can be ob- 
tained from books to which teachers usually have access. 
Lessons upon several of these subjects may be given to a 
class before those of the preceding pages are presented. 

In giving these lessons, the attention of the pupils 
should b^ directed to such points as will lead them to 
observe those characteristics which chiefly distinguish the 
objects and render them useful. For lessons on fruits, 
nuts, grains, and other vegetable productions, lead the pu- 
pils to consider as mati}'- of tlie following points as may 
be appropriate to the object under consideration : 

1. Is it a fruit, nut, grain, gum, juice, root? 2. Where 
does it grow ? 3. How is it obtained ? 4. What docs it 



SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 167 

most nearly resemble ? 5. What is its principal quality ? 
6. What is its chief use ? 

If the lesson be on a mineral or metal, let attention be 
directed to the following points : 

1. In what form or condition is it found ? 2. What is 
done with it to make it useful ? 3. What are its princi- 
pal qualities ? 4. What are its chief uses ? 

If the lessons be on manufactured articles, let the at- 
tention of the pupils be directed to the following points : 

1. Of what substances is it made ? 2. Why w' ere these 
substances used ? 3. Could any other substance be used ? 
4. State processes of the making. 5. For what purpose 
was it made ? G. Where was it made ? 

In all of these lessons obtain facts from the pupils, as 
far as possible. When the object is such that they can 
easily gain the desired information about it at home or 
elsewhere, postpone further consideration of it until an- 
other day, and request the pupils to gain all the facts pos- 
sible before the lesson is taken up again. 

Dew. — When seen, Low formed? [Moisture of the atmos- 
phere condenses on cool objects, just as the water collects from 
the moisture in the air on the outside of a pitcher of ice-water.] 
Frozen dew, called //'os^ 

Vapor. — Moisture in the atmosphere, too thinly diffused to be 
seen ; or moisture rising and condensing into a very thin, cloud- 
like condition, somewhat as steam condenses, so as to be visible. 

Clouds. — A collection of visible vapors in the sky. "Wlicn the 
clouds are condensed by cooler currents of air, so as to form drops, 
these descend as rain. 

Hail and snow are produced by these drops freezing, under dif- 
ferent conditions. 

Raiubcws arc formed by the reflection of the sunlight in drops 



1G8 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of falling water. To see the rainbow, you must look in a direc- 
tion opposite to the sun. 

Fog. — Cloud-like vapor filling the atmosphere near the ground. 
Sometimes this vapor becomes so dense that a person can see but 
a few feet from himself. 

SEEDS OF GRAIN-BEARING PLANTS. 

Interesting lessons may be given on the seeds of plants used 
for food. Samples of each might be collected, and kept in small 
bottles, with the name of the seed on each. In giving these les- 
sons, the following facts will be found useful, to be told the pu- 
pils after they have stated all they know concerning that which 
is the subject of the lesson : 

Cereals. — The common grain-bearing plants — loheut, rye, bar- 
ley, Indian-corn, rice, oats, also broom-corn and millet — are called 
cereals, from Ceres, who was the fabled goddess of corn and ag- 
riculture, and who is generally represented as crowned with ears 
of wheat. All of these grain-bearing plants belong to the yrass 
family. 

Barley. — The seed of a grass-like plant. It is said to liavc 
been the first grain used for human food. It is cultivated in a 
northern climate, and used for food as bread, soups, and malt 
drinks. 

Oats. — The seed of a grass-like plant. Each grain grows on a 
separate branch of the stalk. Oats are used in various forms as 
food for both man and beast. Oats and barley will grow in colder 
and less fertile regions than other grain-bearing grasses. When 
ground, it is called oat-mcal. 

Rye. — Tbe seed of a grass-like plant which resembles wheat in 
its growth. This grain may be cultivated where the climate is 
too cold for wheat to flourish. Rye is made into flour, and used 
for bread, etc. 

Buckwheat. — The triangular-shaped seed of a plant cultivated 
chiefly in a northern cliuiate. The grain is ground into flour, 
and used for food in the form of ii'riddle-cakes. The name buck- 



SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 169 

wheat was probably given to this grain from the fact that its 
shape is like that of the nut of the beech-tvcc. 

"Wheat. — The seed of a common grass-like plant cultivated in 
the temperate zones. It is the most valuable of the grains used 
for food. It is used in a great variety of forms. How many of 
these can you mention ? 

Rice. — The seed of a grass-like plant cultivated for food. It 
is chiefly raised in the torrid zone, and in the warmest portions 
of the temperate zones. Although rice is much less nutritious 
than wheat, rye, or barley, yet it forms the food of a greater 
number of the human race than any other grain. What food 
have you eaten made of rice ? 

Indian-corn, or Maize. — The seed of a large plant of the grass- 
family. It was originally found in North America, but is now 
cultivated in many parts of the world. The seeds grow around 
a central stem called a cob. It is used for food for man and beast. 
When ground, it is called Indian-meal. 

Broom-corn. — The top of this well-known plant is extensively 
used for making brooms. The seed forms a portion of the food 
of the people in Arabia and India. In the West Indies the seed 
is called negro-corn, as it is much used for food by the negroes. 

MUlet. — The seeds of this grass-like plant are the smallest of 
the grains used for food. The Italians make a coarse, dark-col- 
ored bread from the flour of this grain. In this country it is 
chiefly raised for feeding poultry. 

Quinoa. — The seed of a weed-like plant which grows in ele- 
vated regions in Chili and Peru, South America, 10,000 or 
12,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is ground into flour, 
and resembles oatmeal in many of its qualities. The seeds are 
small and roundish. 

SEEDS OF POD-BEARING PLANTS. 

Beans. — The seeds of well-known pod-bearing plants. They 
are very nutritious. In what form are beans used for food ? 

8 



170 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUIXG. 

Pease. — The seeds of well-known pod-bearing vines. Like 
beans, they are nutritious, and wholesome as food. How are 
pease prepared for food ? 

Lentils. — The seeds of a pod-bearing plant well-known in Eu- 
rope. It is used for food. 

FRUITS, NUTS, GRAINS, ETC. 

The following classes and names of substances will suggest 
topics for several lessons similar to preceding ones : 

Fruits. — Orange, lemon, fig, date, prune, pineapple, raisin, bread- 
fruit, banana, peach, plum, apricot, apple, pear, cherry, currant, 
grape, berries, etc. 

Nuts. — Almond, Brazil-nut, chestnut, beechnut, hickory -nut, 
walnut, filbert, cocoa-nut, peanut, vegetable-ivory, pecan-nut, hazel- 
nut, butternut. 

Grains. — Wheat, rye, corn, oats, barley, rice, buckwheat, bean, 
pea. 

Roots, Bulbs, etc. — Potato, sweet-potato, turnip, beet, carrot, 
radish, yam, horseradish, onion, lily, tuberose, tulip, crocus, ginger, 
sweet-flag, etc. 

Juices. — Cider, vinegar, turpentine, tar, rosin, liquorice, gum- 
arabic. 

Drinks. — Tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa, broma, alkathrepta, milk. 

Metals. — Iron, steel, copper, silver, gold, lead, tin, pewter, brass, 
zinc, nickel, shot. 

Minerals. — Coal (hard and soft), charcoal, coke, lime, marble, 
graphite or black-lead, mortar, chalk, alum, borax, pumice-stone. 

Miscellaneous Articles. — Brick, glue, matches, gunpov/der, 
gun-cotton, paper, calico, oil-cloth, butter, cheese, rattan, vanilla, 
earthen-ware, mustard, olive-oil, honey, molasses, arrowroot, Ice- 
land moss. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 171 



NATUEAL HISTORY. 

" Nature h man's best teacher. She unfolds 
Her treasures to his search, unseals his ej-e, 
Illumes his mind, and purilles liis heart, — 
An influence breathes from all tlic sights and sounds 
Of her existence ; she is Wisdom's self." 

Alfred B. Street. 

Living, moving forms possess the greatest attractions 
for children. The life and motions exhibited in the ani- 
mal world, corresponding to the activity of childhood, 
place animals among the earliest and most interesting ob- 
jects that awaken the curiosity of the young ; hence they 
furnish materials admirably adapted to cultivating their 
perceptive faculties, and forming habits of attentive ob- 
servation. 

" Those who have watched the faint dawnings of intellect and 
the gradual brightening that heralds the day will have observed 
that children very early become acquainted with certain objects, 
and indicate, when only eight or ten months old, their instantane- 
ous detection of changes in those things to which they are accus- 
tomed. Such observers will testify that, next to the familiar faces 
of the members of their own family, there are no objects which 
attract their attention sooner or more powerfully than our do- 
mestic quadrupeds. The dog, the cat, the horse, the cow, and the 
sheep are to them wonders. Not only do they become acquainted 
with the figure, color, and movements of these animals, but Avith 
their various cries ; so that long before the infant lips are capable 
of articulating the name of the dog or of the cow, the bark of the 
one and the lowing of the other will be attempted, and will be so 
associated with the animal as to serve instead of a name. Thus 



172 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the imitative or natural language of the child precedes the arti- 
ficial. And ideas relating to a class of natural history objects are 
among the earliest mental acquirements of children. 

"As it is a beneficent law of our nature that the legitimate ex- 
ercise of every organ and faculty is in itself a source of pleasure, 
we may feel assured that the use of the observaut powers is a 
source of gratification to the child, and a stimulus which leads to 
a desire to see more. The object — whether animal or plant — that 
the child thus sees may be described in a hundred books, and 
have been familiar for ages to men of science, yet these facts do 
not detract from the delight of the child. It is new to him ; and 
his pleasure is akin to that of the naturalist, who detects an un- 
recorded species, and gives it a name, and places it for the first 
time on the rolls of science."* 

Children always find delight in watching the move- 
ments and noticing the intelligence of animals, and in lis- 
tening to stories about them. No department of nature 
is more attractive to them, or supplies so great an abun- 
dance of suitable objects for developing their habits of 
gaining knowledge from the M'orld around them ; yet 
when left entirely to themselves in this matter of obser- 
vation, they neglect to see many of the things that are 
most important to correct knowledge ; and they also fail 
to associate in proper groups the facts which they thus 
learn. The guiding influence of the competent instructor 
becomes, therefore, especially beneficial to the young ob- 
server, even with such an abundance of attractive mate- 
rials, by leading him to notice tliose significant features 
and characteristics that belong to the different kinds of 
animals. 

Young children need to be guided to that which is best 
for them to see much of, as M'ell as to what is best for 
them to eat much of. "With all their fondness for watch- 
ing the movements of animals, they need to be led to see 

* Robert Patterson, in Natural Hhtonj in Home Education. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 173 

for a special purpose, and to see things that rcLate to that 
purpose. But they may also be allowed to see as much 
more as they please, if their attention be properly given 
to those objects which are under investigation. 

One of the great mistakes in the plans of education lies 
in the neglect to provide for a proper use of the valuable 
materials which nature furnishes so abundantly in the an- 
imal world as a means for the early development of the 
powers of gaining knowledge. The domestic animals, 
and such others, including insects, as come within the 
range of frequent observation, engage the attention of 
children long before they are old enough to commence 
their lirst lessons in books. Nature does not weary the 
young learner, as books do. These facts should be remem- 
bered in the arrangement of courses of primary instruc- 
tion. That which is familiar and interesting to children 
should be among the subjects of the earliest lessons. Nat- 
ure should be studied first; then books and nature togeth- 
er, each helping the student to understand the other. 

Give children correct ideas of the leading groups of 
animals, teach them to distinguish their characteristics by 
personal observation, and to arrange them in classes by 
such means, and not only will the real interest of children 
in this subject be secured, but the usefulness of text-books 
will be largely increased. Children thus taught become 
real and practical students. By becoming accustomed to 
observe carefully, to arrange in classes by common resem- 
blances, habits of order are formed which prove valuable 
at a later period in life, in whatever situation the person 
so trained may be placed — whether in the office of the 
lawyer, in the counting-room of the merchant, in the lab- 
oratory of the chemist, in the workshop of the mechanic, 
or in the fields of the farmer. 

Among the attractive materials of the animal world ap- 
propriate for the early exercises of the perceptive powers 



174 MAA^UAL or OBJECT-TEACHING. 

are those animals with whoso appearance children are to 
some extent familiar — as the cat, dog, cow, horse, hen, 
goose, duck, sheep, pig, mouse ; and birds of all kinds. 
The toad and the snail snpply interesting materials for 
these lessons in nature, because children do not usually 
expect to find anything instructive in things so common 
and unattractive. 

The peculiar structure and uses of the cat's eye, her 
cushion -like feet, and retractile nails; instances of the 
fidelity and sagacity of the dog ; the docility of the horse ; 
the gentleness of the cow ; the playfulness of the lamb 
and the kitten ; the different movements of birds — as walk- 
ing, hopping, swimming, flying, their nest -building and 
migratory habits ; the form, movement, and habits of fish- 
es, reptiles, and insects, with the wonderful adaptation of 
structure to their several modes of life. Also the differ- 
ent voices of animals: as the bark, the whine, and growl 
of the dog; the mew and purr of the cat; the neigh and 
whinny of the horse ; the bleats of the sheep, goat, lamb, 
and kid ; the cluck and cackle of the hen ; the gabble and 
hiss of the goose ; the quack of the duck ; the caw of the 
crow ; the whistle of the quail ; the songs of the thrush, 
robin, bluebird, and canary, all furnish materials and sub- 
jects adapted to interest and instruct children. 

Attention may be also directed to those animals which 
serve us by their strength, swiftness, and sagacity ; and to 
those that supply so many of our w^ants by their milk, 
flesh, honey, wool, hair, fur, skins, horns, bones, tusks, 
feathers, etc. 

The lessons during the early stages of instruction should 
De short. Give an idea of some one thing, or of the ac- 
tion of some one animal ; then stop, let the young learn- 
ers go away and think and talk about it, and look to see 
if the thing be really so. Then they will return to the 
next lesson desirous of knowing more. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 175 

The natural fondness of cliildrcn for animals renders 
tliese objects especially appropriate for lessons to develop 
their liuniane feelings, sympathy, kindness, and benevo- 
lence. 

Plants, as ^vell as animals, supply useful materials for 
the child's development by their beautiful flowers of many 
shapes and colors; their variety of delicious fruits; their 
fragrance and flavor ; the many forms of their leaves and 
stems; by the wonders of their growth, and their uses for 
food, medicine, clothing, building, furniture, fuel, etc. Al- 
though these lack the attractive feature of motion which 
renders the animal world so full of interest to the young, 
very interesting and profitable lessons may be given on 
these subjects, which will gladden the footsteps of many 
weary pilgrims along the road to the temple of knowl- 
edge, and enrich them with lasting treasures. 

Minerals form an important part of the common ob- 
jects and implements which the child sees and handles 
daily. Although not endowed with the power of motion 
like animals, or of growth like plants, yet they arc also 
calculated to awaken the curiosity of children, and there- 
by furnish appropriate means for their mental develop- 
ment. 

The transparency of glass ; the elasticity of steel springs ; 
the flexibility of copper wire ; the fusibility of lead ; the 
attraction of the magnet ; the usefulness of iron, and its 
softening by heat; the astringency of alum; and the ap- 
pearances, qualities, and uses of other metals, minerals, 
rocks, and soils, add to' the great variety of materials 
which nature abundantly supplies for the development 
and instruction of the child. 

These three grand divisions of nature — animals, vcge- 
tahleSf and minerals — comprise the materials which God 



17G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

employs in exercising the senses, stimulating the percep- 
tive powers, awakening intelligence, and cultivating the 
human mind throughout its stages of intellectual devel- 
opment. And these things are especially adapted to the 
purposes of elementary education, since the aim at this 
time is not so much the giving of a certain amount of 
knowledge as it is the awakening of the faculties, and 
training the pupil to use his own mind. 

The introductory lessons on natural history should be 
graded, and presented in successive steps, corresponding 
to the different stages of the child's development. The 
age and capacity of the child should determine as to the 
extent and minuteness of the observations required, and 
the amount of information to be gained. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 177 



LESSOXS OX AXIMALS. 

FIRST STAGE. 

{Intended for children at home, and during the first year in school.'i 

When children have become sufficiently familiar with 
their own bodies to be able to point out and name the 
principal parts, and to tell the use of each organ of sense, 
they will be ready for the lessons on animals, and pre- 
pared to observe the different parts of animals, to compare 
them with parts of their own bodies, and notice resem- 
blances and differences in the structure and uses of these 
parts. 

The first lessons should not be formal in character, but 
rather consist of familiar conversations, with abundant op- 
portunities for personal observation by the child. As far 
as practicable, let the pupil see the object first, and then 
hear about it. The spontaneous questions by the child 
that follow his seeing — what is it? what is it for? why 
does it do so ? will it hurt me ? — furnish abundant oppor- 
tunities for instruction, and guide the parent or teacher as 
to the kind of information that is most appropriate for the 
young learner during his first lessons. 

When the child enters school he has already acquired 
some knowledge concerning domestic animals, and other 
familiar ones, through home experiences. The teacher's 
first aim must be to ascertain the character and extent of 
this information, and then to follow with appropriate les- 
sons connected with and based upon this knowledge. The 
following series of exercises will suggest some of the meth- 
ods which teachers may pursue during successive steps in 
these early lessons. 

8* 



178 MAls'UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

First Series of Exercises, — To ascertain what animals 
the children are most familiar with, request them to tell what an- 
imals they have seen. When several names have been given, se- 
lect one animal named, and ask a child, Where did you see it ? 
Then ask another where he saw it ; repeating the question to sev- 
eral members of the class. 

What can it do? is another question that may invite answers 
from several pupils. This may be followed by other questions; 
as. How does it move? What does it eat? Where does it live? 
What is it good for? The same or similar questions may be 
asked about different familiar animals. The pupils should be en- 
couraged to make new observations of each animal that forms a 
subject of this exercise, and to talk about them at a subsequent 
lesson. 

To further stimulate them in observation, tell the children some 
simple story about the animal ; or, if the exercise be about a cat, 
ask the children to look at the opening in the cat's eyes when the 
sun «hines, and to look at it at night, or when there is not much 
light in the room, and to tell their teacher the next day what they 
saw. They may be requested also to look at the feet of a duck 
or goose, and the feet of a hen, and afterward tell how they dif' 
fer. Lead them to tell what the cat does when it is happy ; what 
it docs when it is mad. Thus in various ways the teacher may 
stimulate and lead the children to find out many interesting and 
useful facts about animals. 

Do not tell the pupils that which tlieij can discover. The 
teacher may choose the object, lead the pupils to it, then leave 
them to sec it, handle it, and learn from it by the exercise of 
their own senses. 

These exercises may be made a part of the lessons in reading 
and spelling, by teaching the pupils the names of the animals 
talked about ; and to read some of the simple statements as to 
what they can do, how move, what they cat, etc. 

Second Series of Exercises. — Place before the pupils 
pictures of several of the animals about Avhich conversations have 
already been held ; as cat, dog, cow, sheep, goat, horse, etc. Let 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 179 

the pupils name these animals as the teacher points at the pict- 
ures. Let the pupils, singly, point out and name these animals. 
Let them point out and name the principal parts of each ; as, 
head, neck, body, legs, feet, tail, back, ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc. 

Select a single picture — as that of a cat. Let the pupils point 
out and name the principal parts ; as, head, neck, body, tail, legs, 
feet, claws, ears, eyes, teeth, feelers, tongue. 

Select the picture of a familiar bird — as hen, duck, turkey, 
robin — and let the pupils point out and name the principal parts ; 
as head, neck, body, tail, legs, wings, beak, eyes, feet, etc. Pro- 
ceed in the same way with pictures of the dog, the horse, the 
cow, sheep, goat, pig, etc. 

Third Series of Exercises. — Place the pictures of fa- 
miliar animals — as cow, horse, and sheep — before the pupils, and 
request them to tell what each is good for. One pupil might 
say the cow gives us milk ; another, the sheep gives us wool ; 
another, the horse can draw us in a wagon, etc. 

Then a single picture may be selected, and the pupils requested 
to tell all they can about that. If it be the picture of a cow, the 
pupils might Siiy, "We get milk from the cow ; we make butter 
from the milk ; we can make cheese from the milk. Leather 
for shoes and boots is made from the skin of a cow. The flesh 
of the cow is called beef. We eat beef." Do not try to make 
the pupils tell things which they cannot learn by observation, nor 
such as they would not be likely to have learned by talking about 
the subject. 

Proceed in a similar manner with other familiar animals, and 
thus lead the pupils to consider their uses — i. e., to answer one 
of their own questions — "Wliat is it for? In this way they may 
become able to mention, somewhat as follows, many 

USES OF ANIMALS. 

The Horse is useftil for riding, for drawing loads, carts, wagons, 
sleighs, carriages, cars, ploughing, etc. 

The Sheep is useful in supplying wool for clothing, flesh for food, 
and skin for soft leather. 

The Goat is useful in supplying milk for food, and skin for leather. 



180 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The Dog is useful to guard the house and barn, to hunt, to kill 
rats, etc. 

Hens and Turkeys sui)2)ly eggs and flesh for food. 

Ducks and Geese suiDply eggs and flesh for food, and feathers 
for liillows, beds, etc. 

Fourth Series of Exercises. — Lead the pupils to talk 
about the movements of animals. 

First — they may tell what they have noticed concerning tlie 
movements of the animals named for the lesson. 

Second — then lead them to observe the different movements of 
animals more carefully. 

In conducting this exercise, the teacher should not tell the piqnls 
what the movements are, but request them to find out, if they do 
not already know, and to tell about them during tlie next day's 
lesson, which should include a review of the lesson on the pre- 
vious day. 

As suggestions to the teacher relative to the facts which the 
pupils might notice and mention concerning these movements, 
the following list of appropriate animals, with their movements, 
is given : 

The Cat can walk, run, jump, and cHmb. 

The Dog can walk, trot, run, leap, and jump. 

The Horse can walk, trot, run, canter or gallop, and pace. 

The Hen can walk, run, and flJ^ 

The Goose can walk, run, fly, and swim. 

The Sparrow can hop and fly. 

The Robin can run, walk, and fly. 

The Turkey can walk, run, and fly. 

The Fish can swim. 

The Bee can creep and fly. 

The Toad can walk and leap. 

The Mouse can walk, run, and climl). 

The Squirrel can walk, run, climb, and jump. 

The Monkey can walk,jumi), climb, and swing. 

Use these exercises as reading-lessons from the blackboard; 
also as lessons in spelling and writing on slates. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. ISl 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 
SECOND STAGE. 

ITntended for children from eight to ten years ofage.1 

When the cliildren have acquired a good variety of 
facts by their own observation of familiar animals, and 
the ability to give sufficient attention to a single object 
to consider more than one of its characteristics at the same 
lesson, they will be prepared for a second series of lessons, 
during which they may be led to observe more minutely 
the peculiarities of each object. 

During this second stage lessons may be given that will 
afford exercise for the child's imagination, and thus give 
pleasure through a faculty that is very active in early 
life. In giving this series of lessons, the teacher should 
use a few interesting facts about each animal in such a 
manner as to lead the pupils to observe and learn other 
facts about it. 

Some lessons may be commenced by first requiring the 
pupils to tell all they know about the animal ; then the 
teacher may ask a few questions about special habits of 
the animal that will stimulate the pupils to try to find 
answers by their own observations ; as, What does it do ? 
How does it get its food ? What does it eat ? How does 
it move ? Would it like to have you pat it ? etc. 

Sometimes the lesson may be commenced by comparing 
the habits of animals with some appropriate occupation ; 
adding a few interesting facts about them, and telling the 
children how they may see the same things, and many 
others equally interesting. 

Throughout all the lessons in this stage the constant aim 



182 MANUxiL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of the teacher should he to cause the pupils to see carefulhj, 
observe jpatiently ^ and learn for themselves. 

This series may include lessons on a few animals that 
the children see only in museums, menageries, zoological 
gardens, or become somewhat acfjuainted with by means 
of pictures. 

Some simple classification of animals in groups, by their 
similar habits, modes of life, etc., may be made in this 
stage, to give children an idea of kinds or classes of ani- 
mals. 

The following lessons are not intended to be copied by 
the teacher, and taught to the children ; but they are de- 
signed to furnish sufiicient information for bringing the 
lessons before the class, and to suggest methods for con- 
ducting them. Each teacher should endeavor to make 
the lessons her own, and to adapt them to the pupils in 
her class. Concerning some of the animals only the 
most important facts and characteristics are given, and 
the teacher is expected to arrange these in an appropriate 
form for a lesson, with such additional information as she 
can supply. 

After a lesson has been given and reviewed, the pupils 
should be required to write on their slates, or on paper, 
the most important facts contained in the lesson. By 
proper management on the part of the teacher, the pu- 
pils may be led to the writing of compositions in a way 
that will be interesting to them. 

THE CAT. 

The teacher may introduce the lesson in a way that will gain 
the attention of the pupils; and this can be secured by furnishing 
them a little exercise for their imagination, somewliat as follows : 

Children, I am going to talk with you about a small animal 
^vhich all of you have seen. It is fond of staying in the kitchen, 
and of lying in a warm place. It likes to he noticed, and even 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 183 

caressed by those ■\vlio are kind to it. I tliink some of j'ou have 
taken this animal in your arms, and felt of its soft fur. 

Having thus prepared the class for the lesson, the teacher may 
proceed somewhat as follows : 

Teacher. All who think they can tell the name of this animal may 
raise a hand ? Wliat is its name ? 

Children. A cat. 

T. Very good. Here is the picture of a cat. What do you think 
it is doing ? What do you see on each side of its mouth ? 

C. Whiskers. 

T. That which you call the cat's whiskers are its feehrs. When 
the cat puts its head in a hole it can tell by these feelers whether 
the hole is large enougli to allow its body to go through. 

The cat docs not like to lie down in a dirty place. It is more 
care-ful about keeping out of the dirt than some children are when 
they are at play. The cat does not like to have her face dirty. How 
does she keej) her fiice clean ? 

C. She washes it with her paws. She licks her paws, makes them 
clean, then rul)s them on Iier face, then licks them again. 

T. Puss carries a brush, and smooths her fur with it. I think 
some of you have seen her use it. Do you know what this brush is ? 

C. I think it is her tongue, for I have seen her lick her fur; and 
her tongue is rough, something like a brush. 

T. You arc right; the top of her tongue is covered with homy 
points, which slant backward toward her throat. With this rough 
tongue she can make her hair smooth. 

Did you know that cats can see in the dark ? They have curtains 
in their eyes of a yellowish-green color. When the sun shines very 
briglitly they draw these curtains together, so as to leave only a nar- 
row opening between them, and let in a little light. When too much 
light goes into the eye it has a blinding cfl'ect, and prevents the cat 
from seeing well. At niglit this curtain is pulled back to make a 
wide opening, to let in enough light to enable tlie cat to see. By 
this means the cat can see to hunt its prey at night. 

Did yoii ever look in a cat's eyes when the , , ij,, 

sun sliines brightly on her, and notice how the <^ m'^l^^s^/^^ 
curtains are drawn nearly together, leaving w..'" 




only a narrow opening? I will try to make 

a picture on the blackboard to show how tlie ,, . , 

cat's ej'c looks when these curtains are drawn '" ''" 

together. eye in suNLicnT. 




184 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

Did you ever look at a cat's eye at night, 
W'lien the curtaius were pulled so far back that 
tlie oj^euing in the pupil of the eye w.as like a 

large round spot, or circle ? The opening be- 

"^z^^^^^^^^^**^ " tween the curtains of the cat's eye is the pupil. 

' The cat sees throu<?h the pupils of its eves as 

EYE AT NIGUT. ,, , ,, ii • n -i • 

you see through the small cu'cular pupils m 
your eyes. Have you a cat ? What is the color of your cat ? 

You must look at your cat's eyes when you go home, and see if 
you can find the curtains ; and then watch, as you take the cat near 
a bright light, to see them draw together; then take the cat where 
there is but a little light, and watch the curtaius as they move back 
to let in more light. 

If you let the cat lick your hand, you can feel the brush with which 
she smooths her fur. 

Did you ever see the cat's pin-cushions ? She carries them on her 
feet, and keeps in them several curved pins, with sharp points. See 
if you can count the pins in each cushion ? "What does she do with 
them ? 

The cat walks on her cushions. They are so soft that she can 
walk without making a noise ; and the mice do not hear her as 
she creeps up near their holes to watch for them to come out, where 
she can reach them with her paws. 

What does the cat do when she is happy? 

Children. She j^urrs. 

Teacher. How does the cat show that she is angry? 

C. She wags her tail, and makes a noise. 

T. How does the cat tell you that she is hungry ? 

C. She mews. 

T. How does slie tell you that she wants you to open the door for 
her to come in or to go out ? 

How many of you will look at a cat at home, and try to find all 
the things that we have talked about — i\\e. feelers., the hrush, the cush- 
io?!s, the crooJiedpinsf 

Some day we will talk more about the cat, and tell you something 
about her great uncles and cousins that live far away. 

When giving the lessons in tliis stage, two or three exercises 
should be had about each animal, so as to give the pupils time 
for observing wliat may be found that has been talked about, and 
the teacher an opportunity of correcting mistakes which they may 
Lave made. One or two days may elapse between the exercises. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 185 

It is important that tlic pupils be encouraged to tell what they 
observe, so far as it relates to the points of the lesson, and allowed 
opportunity to report their observations. When able to write, oc- 
casionally change the manner by which the pupils report what they 
have seen, and let them write what they would say instead of tell- 
ing it. 

THE DOG. 

The dog may be made the subject of a lesson, and treated some- 
what like the cat. The attention of the children may be directed 
to the characteristics of the dog somewhat as follows : 

There is an animal, which usually lives about the house, that chil- 
dren sometimes use for a horse to ride ; sometimes they harness him 
to their little wagon, and let him draw it around the yard. Some 
of these animals are so kind to children, and so good-natured, that 
they will allow little boj-s to pull their tails and ears, or sit on them 
and roll them over. I think you have seen one of these animals that 
was happy to go with you when you took a walk in the fields or in 
the woods. He is always happy with children who are kind to him 
and do not tease him. What is the name of tliis animal ? 

The dog is a faithful companion of man. He protects his person 
from strangers ; guards his house and other property at night ; assists 
his master in hunting wild game ; helps him to care for and drive 
his cattle and sheep ; sometimes he brings his master's daily paper 
to him ; sometimes he takes a basket to market for meat or groceries ; 
sometimes he saves the life of a child that falls into deep water from 
drowning; and in a great many ways he serves those W'ho are kind 
to him. His affectionate disposition strongly attaches him to his mas- 
ter, and he will follow him wherever he is allowed to go. He is the 
companion and friend of man in all parts of the world. A dog has 
a very keen scent. He can track his master along a crowded street, 
and can follow an animal for many miles by the scent along its track 
without getting within sight of it. Tliis fact makes the dog valuable 
for hunting deer, foxes, and other animals. His sight and hearing are 
also very keen. 

"What kind of dogs have you seen ? You may tell me their names. 
Look at the dogs in this picture,* and see how many kinds you can 
point out. 

Now direct the pupils' attention to the long head of this animal ; 

* Show Prang's picture of dogs, or some other one that represents several 
kinds of dogs. 



186 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

its long cars ; its smooth tongue ; strong, pointed teeth ; its bhmt 
nails; to its habit of extending the tongue when heated or tired l)y 
running; to tlic tricks Avliich he may Ije taught to perform; and to 
his general intelligence. Encourage the children to tell ^vhat their 
dogs can do. 

Teacher. What does the dog do to show that he is happy ? How 
does he tell you that he is hungry? How does the dog show you 
that he is angry ? 

THE GOAT. 

The goat being an animal with which children generally are 
familiar, tlie teacher can obtain many facts concerning it from 
them, and then direct their attention to its structure, habits, 
uses, etc. 

They may be led to compare the size of its body and the shape 
of its head with those of the sheep, and to notice that its slender 
legs, and its feet with parted hoofs, are like those of the sheep ; 
but that it differs from the sheep in being covered with hair, and 
in having a tuft of hair, or beard, under its chin. 

It cats grass, hay, grain, and vegetables like the sheep, but it 
will cat also many other things, as twigs, leaves, bark, old paper, 
and sometimes rags. 

Goats like to live on hills and among rocks. They are sure- 
footed, and can climb the sides of steep, rocky hills where a sheep 
could not go. Wild goats live in herds on the mountains of Eu- 
rope and Asia. 

This animal belongs to the eud-chcwing family. It is often 
kept about horse-stables, and frequently a horse and a goat be- 
come great friends to each other. It is said that goats are the 
only animals that will boldly face a fire. 

The Cashmere goat of Asia is celebrated for its fine gray wool, 
■which grows under its long, silky hair. Only a small quantity of 
wool — about three ounces — is obtained from a single goat. Ex- 
pensive Cashmere shawls are made of this wool. 

The milk of the goat is used for food ; its skin for morocco 
leather. The skin of the young kid is used for kid gloves. Boys 
sometimes harness goats to their little wagons, and thus make the 
goat draw them about. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 1S7 



THE BAT. 



In a warm summer evening, after the birds and fowls have all 
gone to roost, we sometimes see a little creature flying about so 
swiftly that we can hardly follow it with our eyes. It seldom 
makes a noise ; its wings do not rustle like those of birds ; it has 
no feathers. Did you ever see one of these little animals ? What is 
its name ? Why do you suppose it flies about in this manner ? 

You have seen swallows fly about in the daytime, sometimes near 
the ground, sometimes close to the surface of a pond of water, and 
sometimes higher in the air. The swallows were catching flies and 
small insects for food as they flew about. 

When the swallow goes to his nest for the night, the hat comes 
out to catch flies and mosquitoes for his food. Thus you see the bat 
is a useful animal, and you need not fear it. It does not wish to 
hurt us; it only wants to catch the flies and other insects which 
annoy us. Do not fear the bat, but watch the next one that you 
see, and feel glad that it catches so many flies for its supper. 

Bats take a drink of water after eating, but they do not stop to 
drink ; they fly near the surface of the water, and take a sip without 
stopping. 

Look at this picture of bats.* Some are flying, some are hanging 
up by their hind feet, ready to slecii. This is the way they hang in 
the daj'time when they sleep. They fly about at night, and sleej) in 
the daytime. They sleep in some dark hole in a tree, or in a dark 
])lace among rocks. They hang themselves up by their hind feet, 
and fold their wings around the body as you see iu the picture. 
Tiiey sleep all winter without eating. 

The head is shaped somewhat like that of a mouse, but its nose is 
much shorter. Its eyes are very bright. It has long ears, and hears 
very quickly the least noise. The mouth contains small, sharp teetli, 
somewhat like the cat's teetli in shape. It will bite if you take it in 
your hand. 

Its wings are very curious. They are made of thin skin, without 
any feathers. It has a pair of hooks on each wing. When it alights 
for a moment, it can hold itself up by these hooks. The body is cov- 
ered with a soft, thick fur like that of a mouse. Some are gray, and 
some are brown. Did you ever see a brown bat ? Were you afraid 
of it ? 



* Prancfs Katural Iliniory iSeries contains an excellent i)icture of bats in 
each of these ijositions. 



188 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Tlie cry of the bat is very weak — not so loud as tliat of a mouse. 
Did you ever liear a bat squeak or cry ? It is said that tbey arc very 
cleanly; that tbey comb their fur carefully, and part it with tbeir 
claws. 

Bats and swallows are useful in catching flies and other insects, 
and thus prevent them from becoming too numerous and trouble- 
some. 

THE MOUSE. 

Did you ever see that very little animal with l^right eyes, soft 
fur, and long tail, wliich creeps slyly out of a little hole in the cor- 
ner, looks around, and then runs quickly across the room ? What 
is the name of it ? 

Its teeth are sharp and strong, and made for gnawing holes. It 
has four very small feet, and can run without making a noise. Its 
tail is long, but very small, and has no hair on it. It has large ears 
and bright eyes, so that it can hear the least noise and see the least 
movement. It is a very timid animal, and runs away when it hears 
a noise ; but it creeps softly back again when all is quiet. Of what 
is this animal afraid ? 

It comes out of its hole to get crumbs of bread and cake. It is 
very fond of cheese also. Sometimes it gnaws holes in a box or 
closet to get at something inside. When it has had enough food it 
goes back to its house, or nest, which is made soft and warm inside, 
so that the little mice may not get cold. 

Do you like to have mice in your house ? What do you do to get 
rid of them ? What can you tell about mice ? Look at this picture, 
and tell me what you see in it.* 

Children. What a funny mouse, with such a long, long tail ! 

Teacher. That is called a jum^jiiiff mouse; it is somewhat like a 
kangaroo — its hind legs are so much longer than its front ones. 
This mouse does not run like other mice, but it jumps, making long 
leaps, as you see in tliis picture.* 

Tlie large mouse in the lower left-hand corner of the picture is a 
meadotc 7not(se. Its tail is much shorter than that of the jumping 
mouse, and it is also shorter than the tail of the house mouse. 

The larger picture on the right-hand side is that of a i^at. Tlie 
rat and mouse belong to the same family, but they do not often live 
in the same house. 

Can you tell something about mice and rats ? 



* Prang'' s Natural History Series. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 189 

THE RABBIT. 

Most children can tell something about rabbits — of their long 
cars, pink eyes ; that their hind legs are longer than their front 
legs; that they move by jumps, instead of walking, as cats and 
dogs do ; that they dig holes in the ground to live in ; that these 
holes are called burrows ; that some children have pet rabbits. 

After all the facts which the pupils can state about rabbits 
have been given, additional facts may be stated by the teacher, 
such as that their food consists of grass, grain, vegetables, fruits, 
and the bark of young trees; that they are very timid when 
wild ; that tame rabbits are white, black, and of other colors, 
while wild ones are usually brown in summer, but of a grayish- 
white in winter; that they lay back their ears, so as to hear 
when an enemy approaches them from behind ; that their eyes 
are so placed near the top of the head that they can readily 
see anything that comes from either direction ; and that they 
must depend upon flight for safety, as they have no means of 
defence. 

The wild rabbits are full of odd tricks which are amusing. They 
come from their burrows about sunset, also in the morning just 
before sunrise. AYhen a person has once seen the comical move- 
ments of these creatures in their native home, he will desire to 
see them again and again in their gambols and laughable antics. 

When one rabbit wishes to call another from his burrow, he 
goes near the mouth of a hole, and with its hind feet gives a 
tap-tapping on the ground. If a rabbit does not soon come out, 
he goes to another hole, and repeats his tapping on the ground. 
Sometimes an old rabbit rushes out, and begins to fight this dis- 
turber of his peace. They leap over each other, and kick their 
enemy Avith their hind feet ; each trying to jump the highest and 
kick the hardest. They have great strength with their hind feet, 
and often knock each other down. 

Rabbits give a signal of danger by a sound like tap-jmf. When 
this sound is made, all the rabbits rush for their burrows. Some- 
times rabbits fight by striking their heads together. 

The rabbit is a gnawing animal. Its front teeth are like those 



190 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of a rat. It often does i^rcat injury to trees by gnawing the bark 
near the ground. The flesh of the rabbit is used for food, and its 
skin for clothing. 

THE ROBIN. 

Teacher — holding a picture of a robin before the class — says, How 
many of you hiive seen a bird like the one in this jjicture ? All of 
you ? Then Willie may tell the name of it. Mary, where did you see 
a robin ? 

Do robins walk or hop when they move on the ground ? Do they 
often stop ^Yhen walking? Do they walk fast? Did you ever see 
a robin's nest? James may tell us where he saw a nest, and what it 
was made of. 

James. I saw a robin's nest in an ai)ple-tree. It was built in a fork 
of the branches, of sticks and grass. 

T. Eobins often build nests in trees near a house. They make them 
of small sticks, dry grass, and hair. Only two robins attend to one 
nest. The female robin gathers the materials and builds the nest, 
and the male robin acts as a sentinel to give alarm if any enemy 
comes near; and he guards the nest so that other l«rds may not steal 
it while the female is away gathering more materials. It takes three 
or four days to finish a nest. The female shapes the inside of it hy 
turning round and round in it many times, with her tail hugging it 
close on the outer rim. 

Usually three or four eggs are laid. The robin sits eleven days to 
hatch her young. In about eight days the young robins are covered 
with pin-feathers, and their eyes are open; in eleven or twelve days 
more they leave their nests, and are taken care of by the male robin. 
As soon as the young birds are out of their shells the male robin pro- 
vides the food, keeps the nest clean, and sits on it to keep the j'oung 
birds warm when the mother-bird is absent in search of food. 

In a few days after the first brood leaves the nest, the female gath- 
ers new materials and builds another nest, iisually not far from the 
first, and prepares for a second fiimily. The robin rears but two 
broods in one season. 

Tlie chief food of the robin is worms and other insects. He is the 
farmer's best friend. A multitude of insects are bred in tlie eartli, 
and the robin consumes a large number of them. If all of these 
insects were left to feed on vegetables and fruits, the destruction of 
tliem would be so great that both beast and man would sufler for 
the want of food. 

Robins eat but a few cherries, or other fruits, until after his dcstruc- 



LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 191 

tion of insects has saved the farmer more than the vakic of his fruit. 
During a single year a pair of robins will save ten times more fruit 
and grain than all they consume. The robin deserves to be treated 
kindly for all the good that he does ; but too often he is abused, 
stoned, and shot by those who do not know his real character and 
value to the farmer. 

The male and female robins do not differ much in size ; but the 
female is of a light-er color, and has no rosy color on tlie neck and 
breast. The male bird is often called " robin-red-breast." Both of 
these birds have large, bright eyes. 

It is the male robin whose song is lieard ringing out so clearly 
early in the morning and late at night. The notes of the robin may 
be heard at the first dawn of light, long before the sun is up, and 
when evening twilight has faded almost into the darkness of night. 
Do you know what the robin says when he sings? Somebody told 
me that he said, 

"Jonathan Gillet scoured the skillet; 
Scoured it neat, scoured it clean." 

Listen to his song, and see if you think he says this. 

I hope you will watch the robin, learn much about its habits, learn 
to look at it as a friend, and to treat it with kindness. 

THE EARTH-WORM. 

I think all of you have seen a long, slender worm of a pinkish 
color, without legs, crawl out of a hole in the ground after a shower 
of rain. Did you ever v.'atch the movements of this earth-worm, and 
learn how it can crawl without legs ? 

If you examine it carefully as it moves, you will observe that its 
body contains a great many rings, placed at little distances from 
each other. If you could count them, you would find more than 
one hundred in all. When the worm crawls you can see these riiiirs 
separate, or stretch apart, as about half of the body stretches forward : 
tiien these rings come near together again, as the back part of the 
body is drawn IbrwanL 

This worm has four long muscles wdiich extend the whole length 
of its body; and it can lengthen or shorten these muscles, and thus 
separate the rings, or draw them together. 

The earth-worm has a pointed head, which can be distinguished 
from the tail by being more pointed than the tail. It has a mouth, 
but no eyes nor teeth, and does not hear nor smell. It has the sense 
of touch and of taste. The sense of touch is keen, as may be seen by 
touching it lightly as it peers above its hole. It feeds upon the soil 



192 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

it lives in, swallowing it and the half-decayed organic substances in 
it, and passes them through the body, as may be seen by the casts 
around their holes. 

It is supposed that these worms breed once a year. Their young 
are produced from eggs, which are laid in clusters at considerable 
depth in the ground. The eggs are laid in the spring, and hatched 
in June and July. The egg is about the size of a pea, with a hole 
in one end, through which the young worm escapes. 

If the worm be cut in two behind the belt of rings — which is about 
one-third of its length back of its mouth — this part of the worm will 
grow out again ; but if the body be cut in two at the belt, or between 
the belt and the head, the worm will die. 

You have probably seen tlie earth-worm used for bait when fish- 
ing, and many think it good for nothing else. The real uses of this 
worm appear to l)e to furnish food for moles, toads, frogs, suakes, the 
robin and other birds, and also for fishes and some kinds of insects. 
They do more harm than good to vegetation. They eat into roots 
of plants. The earth-worm is found where man dwells, but not in 
tlie forests until carried there by man. 

Earth-worms can be destroyed when they become so numerous as 
to injure plants. They are very thin-skinned, and any hot or caustic 
liquid — like lime-water or weak lye — will kill them. If the earth l)e 
shaken where these worms are abundant, they crawl out of their 
holes, as if afraid. Some birds know this habit of these worms, 
and they stamp with their feet on the ground about these holes; 
aud as the worm comes out the bird catches it with its long bill. 



THE SNAIL. 

Before giving this lesson, several snail-shells should be procured ; 
also two or three live snails. 

Let pupils exaniine the shells and notice the spiral shape ; tell 
them that each turn or twist of the shell is called a whorl; that 
all the whorls together are called a spire ; that the point of spire, 
or cone, is called the apex ; the opening of the shell is called the 
mouth, or ajyerture ; that the line dividing the whorls is called a 
suture. 

The shell is a part of the snail, and sometimes is called its house ; 
Init the snail cannot leave its house and move about without it. It 
cannot live out of its house ; so, when it moves about, it must carry 
its house on its back. When the snail wants to move from place to 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 193 

place, it creeps part way out of its house, so as to get its long foot, or 
the Hat part on which it moves, on the ground. If you place a live 
snail on a piece of glass, and watch its movements as it crawls, you 
can see how it moves on its single foot ; for the snail has only one 
foot. As the snail begins to move, you will see little horns, or feel- 
ers, on the front part of its head, moving about as if feeling its way 
along. These feelers have a hard name, and you need not try to re- 
member it; but if you should hear anybody say the tentacUs of the 
snail, you may know that they mean t\\e feelers^ ov horns. 

Laud-snails have four horns, or feelers; and on the tips of two of 
them may be seen black dots about as large as pin-heads ; these are 
the eyes of the snail. The eyes of the sea-snail are usually on small 
elevations at the base of the feelers. The mouth is below and between 
the horns. 

Snails and slugs are soft-bodied animals ; they have no bones, or 
rings, or joints in their bodies. They have cold blood, and are cov- 
ered with a skin, from which oozes a gummy fluid ; as the snail crawls 
along, this fluid leaves a slimy trail behind it. 

Lead the pupils to notice how quickly the ends of the feelers, con- 
taining the eyes, are drawn back when they are touched. This shows 
tiiat the snail has the sense of feeling. Let the pupils also notice how 
the snail eats, by jilacing it on a leaf of lettuce or cabbage. It breathes 
by holes in the sides of its body. 

In autumn laud-snails bury themselves in the ground, retire within 
their shells, and close the mouth of the shell with a film of gummy 
mucus. In this condition the snails remain until the warm weather 
of spring revives them again. 

Snails are hatched from very small, jelly-like eggs about the size 
of homoiopathic pellets. A single snail will lay from fifty to one hun- 
dred eggs. These eggs possess great vitality, and may be dried so 
as to crumble between the fingers, yet moisture and warmth will re- 
store them in a single hour. The eggs hatch in two or three weeks; 
and at first the young snail has a very small shell, containing only 
one whorl and a half; but the shell grows larger as the snail grows. 

By placing several snails, early in spring, in a box with earth, rot- 
ten wood, or damp leaves, their eggs may be seen in a few weeks. 
If the eggs are kept on moist leaves in a warm place, they will hatch 
out, and small snails grow during the summer. If the shell of the 
snail becomes broken a little, the snail can repair it. 

Slugs are snail-like animals ; but they have no shell or house. 
They are found on i)lants in gardens, and on the under side of 
boards lying on damp ground. Slugs are very destructive to plants. 

9 



194 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Sometimes tl)c gardener puts dry ashes around his pknts to keep 
the shigs awaj'. 

The slug can spin a tliread of tlie slimy substance -with ■which it 
makes a path to creep on, and lower itself from a table to the floor ; 
but it cannot creep back again on this thread. 

Some slugs lay five hundred eggs. Toads eat slugs. 

THE TOAD. 

Sometimes when you go in the garden or walk along a road-side, 
after a shower, you will see a little animal hop out of your way ; 
and I suppose some of you wonder where these toads came from, 
and what they are doing. Toads dig holes in soft earth, or hide un- 
der leaves. When a rain is over, they hop out of their hiding-place, 
and hunt for slugs, worms, and flics for food. 

It is very interesting to watch a toad iu the garden, as he sits 
close to the ground under or near some plant, and waits for a fly or 
a worm to come near him. If one appears, the toad does not seem 
to notice it; but as it comes near, the tongue of the toad darts out 
suddenly, draws the insect quickly into his mouth, and swallows it. 
The toad does not seize the insect while it is motionless ; but as soon 
as it moves, as if to get away, the wonderful tongue pulls it into his 
mouth. And the toad continues to sit quietly in his place, waiting 
for more food to move within the reach of his tongue. 

The toad is a much-abused creature. Some people say that he is 
poisonous ; that if you touch him warts will come on your hands ; 
and many otlier bad tilings are falsely said about the toad. Its skin 
does contain an acrid fluid, which it can cause to flow over its body 
for a defence against dogs and other animals. This is very oflensive 
to dogs, but it is not poisonous to the touch. Tlie fact is, the toad 
is a very useful animal, both in gardens and in fields. He moves 
around at night, devouring many kinds of insects, as slugs, worms, 
moths, caterpillars, crickets, flies, etc. Sometimes gardeners collect 
a large number of toads, and place them among their plants, that 
they may destroy the insects. Toads are sometimes tamed, and then 
they will creep out of tlieir hiding-place, on hearing a familiar call 
or whistle, to eat the flies, spiders, beetles, slugs, or other insects that 
are placed before them. 

Do not abuse the homely toad ; he is much better tlian he looks. 
When you have watched liim while he catches flies, and remember 
how useful he is, you will not think of his ap])earance. 

Did you ever see polliwigs in a small pond of water in the spring- 
time ? Tadpole is another name for this little animal. Do you know 



I LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 195 

■^•liat becomes of tlicsc tadpoles ? If you should take some of thcin 
out of the pond, and keep them in a basin of water for a few days, 
you would see some wonderful changes. First, two small feet and 
legs would come out near the tail. Soon afterward two more legs 
would afppear near the head. In a few days after the tail becomes 
shorter and shorter, until it all disappears, and the tadpole has be- 
come a toad; it then creeps out of the water, and hops away to hunt 
for food. Did you ever catch tadpoles, and watch them as they 
change into toads ? 

I will tell you one more interesting fact about the toad, which you 
miglit not learn unless you should watch him for many months. The 
skin of the toad is its dress. As the young toad grows, his dress be- 
comes too small for him, and it splits open ; then he pulls it off, and 
eats it up. How do you suppose he gets a new dress? Before the 
old skin sjilits open, a new skin grows under it; so, when the old 
dress is pulled off, the new dress is already linished and on the toad. 
In this way the toad changes his dress once a year; and he rolls the 
old dress up in a ball and swallows it. Snakes change their dresses 
once a year, but they do not eat up their old clothes; they crawl 
out and leave them. Perhaps you have seen an old dress that some 
snake had left on the ground. 

THE GRASSHOPPER. 

Did you know that a grasshopper is ^ fiddler 1 You have heard 
the music made by this insect, and many have supposed that he 
made it with his mouth, as children do when they sing; but that is 
not the way his uuisic is made. I will tell you how he docs make 
his music ; then, if you sometimes see him while he is fiddling, you 
will know what he is doing. 

If you will carefully examine a grasshopper, look at the veins run- 
ning through the wings and in the wing-covers, and also examine 
his hind legs, and you will see what he uses for his fiddles. Tlie 
edgei of tlie icings and the icing-cmers are tlie strings, and the Jiind legs 
of this insect are the iows. When the grasshopper begins to play on 
his fiddles, he bends the shank of one hind leg beneath the thigh, 
and then draws tlie leg up and down against the edges of the wings 
or wing-covers. He does not use one bow all the time, but changes, 
and moves the shank of the other hind leg as before, playing awiiilc 
with tliat. Some grasshoppers rub one wing-cover upon tlie veins 
of the other; some rub together the front edge of tiie wings and tiie 
under surface of the wing-covers. 

Crickets make their cliirping sounds by rubldiig the l)ase of one 



19G MANUAL or OBJECT-TEACHING. 

•R-ing- cover upon the veins running through the middle of the 
wing. 

I Avill tell you how to get very near a grasshopper, so that you can 
see him fiddle. When you hear a grasshopper's music, walk very 
quietly toward the sound until it stops, and then wait for it to begin 
again. Now try to determine the location of the insect; then step 
quickly, but quietly, within live or six feet of the fiddler, and get on 
your hands and knees; then rub the edge of a quill on a file, which 
you have taken with you, to imitate the sounds of the grasshopper. 
First make the sounds softly, separating them by considerable inter- 
vals ; then make them louder, and in quicker succession. In a little 
time the grasshopper will forget his fears at your approacli, and be- 
gin to fiddle so loudly that you can creep still nearer, so as to see all 
the movements of your insect musician. 

Grasshoppers shed their skins several times as they grow larger. 
You may be able to find some of this young musician's old clothes 
— fiddle, strings, and bows — hanging on a spire of grass, and then 
you can examine them carefully. 

Grasshoppers are hatched from eggs. The young grasshopper is 
very small, and has no wings. As it grows, its first suit becomes 
too small, splits open, and the insect crawls out in a new suit of 
clothes. The insect continues to grow — changing his old clothes 
for new ones — until he has attained his full size, and has all his mu- 
sical instruments complete. 

Sometimes little boys are cruel to these fiddlers, and steal their 
totes. Then the poor insect cannot make any more music, nor hop 
out of your path. Is it right to treat the grasshopper so? 

THE SPIDER. 

Some spiders are spinners and weavers; some are linnters; some fly 
hites; and some are halloonists. When would you call a spider a spin- 
ner? When a weaver ? When a hunter ? Can you tell what they do 
that resembles kite-flying? Did you ever hear of their making bal- 
loons, and going up in the air with them ? 

Weaving-spider. — Probably the pupils will be able to tell some- 
thing about the sender spinning and weaving its web; possibly they 
may have seen the woven webs prepared for catching flies. Having 
obtained from the pupils what they know about tliis work of the 
spider, proceed to give other facts; among them, tell how the sjiidcr 
hunts for food. 

Hunting- spider. — This spider does not build nests, but it wanders 
ttbout until it comes near a fly or other insect, then it suddenly springs 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 197 

upon it like a cat. The huntiug-spidcr is small, aud its color black 
aud white. 

Tlie Spider's Kite.— When a spider wants to strctcli a web from 
one liigli place to another — as from a post to a fence — she watches 
and waits until the wind blows in the right direction to carry lier 
fine string where she wants to fasten it. Then she spins a little ball 
or bunch of web, fiistens the fine string to it, aud as she spins lets the 
wind carry her kite and string to the fence or other object. When 
it reaches the desired point, and becomes fast, the spider fastens her 
end of the thread, and then goes over the fine string and fastens 
the other end more securely. Sometimes she adds one or two more 
threads to this line, to make it stronger. 

The Balloon-spider. — The balloonists are young spiders. When 
the air is favorable, they throw up long threads which float in the 
air. These threads are folded together at the bottom, so as to form 
a place for the young spider to lie. When all is ready for the start, 
the little air-voyager gets upon her balloon, folds up her logs, and 
the wind carries her a long distance over the fields. In the autumn 
the long threads of the balloon-spider may be seen in the morning 
on the grass, covered with dew. 

Insects. — Ants, flies, bees, aud butterflies are insects. Their bodies 
are divided into three parts — the head, the middle lody, or thorax, 
and the hind iodi/, or nhdomen. The legs and wings of insects are 
attached to the middle body. 

If you examine the body of a spider, you will find it divided into 
only two parts — the head body and the hindhody. Spiders have eight 
eyes, like small black beads, and four pairs of legs. Flies, bees, and 
ants have only three pairs of legs. The feet of the spider are adapt- 
ed to walking on the web. Each foot is furnished with three claws; 
the middle one is bent over at the end, forming a long finger for 
clinging to the web, or for guiding the thread in spinning. The 
outer claws are curved, and toothed like a comb. Opposite the claws 
are several stiff" hairs, which are toothed like the claws, aud serve as 
a thumb for the claws to shut against. 

At the hinder end of the spider there are little protuberances, 
called spinnerets, arranged in pairs. These contain a fluid somewhat 
resembling the white of an egg. The spinnerets are covered with 
fine, jointed, hollow hairs, through whicli this fluid flows out, form- 
ing the finest of fibres — so fine that hundreds of them united to- 
gether form the single thread of a spider's web, which is strong 
enough to hold a fly when struggling to escaioe. 



198 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Tliere are many kinds of sj^iclers, and they have many interesting 
habits, wliich may be discovered l.iy carefully watching them. The 
female spider does the spinning and weaving, and she lives on the 
web when Huished. The male spider is seldom seen during the 
daytime. 

Tlic young spiders are hatched from eggs; and they shed their 
skins, as they grow up, as grasslioppers do. The eggs of the spider 
are de2)0sited in a ball-like sack ; and this sack may be found under 
stones, boards, logs, etc. The sack of spiders' eggs may be kei:)t in a 
box or bottle, and in due time the young spiders will hatch out. A 
hundred of them may hatch from a single sack, but usually not more 
than one-tenth of them live to reach adult size. 

Althougli so generally dreaded, sjnders may be handled with safety. 
They can bite only that which comes between their jaws, and these 
are so small that it is very rarely that they attempt to bite anything 
except an insect. Each little jaw of the spider has a minute hole 
near the end ; and when an insect is bitten a small drop of a poison- 
ous fluid is forced through these little holes into the wound inflicted, 
and this kills the fly or other insect. This poison has about the same 
efl'ect on a person as the bite of a mosquito. Very large spiders — 
such as are found in hot countries — are more ^loisonous. The com- 
mon spider is very timid, and is more anxious to escape by running 
away than to defend itself 

THE BUTTERFLY. 

Teacher. Wliat are hats for ? 

Children. To wear on the head. 

T. I thought so ; but I saw a boy spoiling his hat by trying to 
catch a butterfly. I know you like to see butterflies, and like to 
chase them, so I will tell you liow to catch them without spoiling 
your hat. Make a small hoop of rattan, or of willow, about the size 
of your hat-rim. Fasten it to a handle about three feet long, and 
get your sister to make a small bag of mosquito-netting, and tasten 
it around the hoop. When you want to catch butterflies, take this 
hoop, creep near them, and swing your net over them. 

Butterflies are among the most beautifully clotlicd of the insect 
tribes. They seem to sjicnd a life of simple enjoyment. But where 
do these Ijeautiful creatui'cs come from ? They are not the children 
of big butterflies. I will tell you something about these fairy beings, 
and then you must try to learn more by watching tliem, and observ- 
ing their changes. 

Eggs arc laid by a butterfly ; from these eggs caterpillars are 



LESSONS OxV ANIMALS. 199 

liatched. The caterpillar eats, grows, sheds its skin ; cats, grows, 
and sheds its skin several times. During this stage the caterpillar 
is called a larva, which means a mank. It is so called because the 
future form of the insect is hidden in the ImTU. When the cater- 
l^illar attains its full growth it stops eating, and remains quiet as if 
asleep. This is called the pupa, or baby state. The ^Ji/^x< form of 
the caterpillar is commonly called a clirysalis. In a few weeks the 
pupa bursts its skin, and a butterfly comes forth. 

Moths of all kinds pass through changes, from eggs to worms or 
larva and the pupa states. Moths usually enclose themselves in a 
cocoon during the pupa state. 

Silk -worms are kinds of moth larva. See the lesson on silk, 
page 160, 

Objects for other Lessons. — Objects suitable for other 
similar lessons may be chosen from the following list, and the 
teacher usually will be able to find the needed information to sup- 
plement such facts as may be gathered from the pupils through 
their personal observations : 

Mosquito, Cricket, Ant, 



Katydid, 


Canary, 


Fly, 


Beetle, 


Dove, 


Horse, 


Turtle, 


Turkey, 


Sheep, 


Fish, 


Swan, 


Cow, 


Snake, 


Goose, 


Weasel, 


Frog, 


Honey-bee, 


Monkey. 



SIMPLE CLASSIFICATIONS. 

Ay exercise for leading tlie pupils to observe such prominent 
cliaracteristics of animals as may be made a basis for arranging 
them in groups will be interesting and profitable. The groups 
of animals given on pages 200 and 201 will indicate the classes 
which the pupils can form by means of their own observation 
of animals, and by the aid of the pictures of them. 



200 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 





ANIMALS WITH 


HOOFS. 




Horse, 


Goat, 




Buffalo, 


MuIg, 


Cow, 




Antelope, 


Zebra, 


Ox, 




Gazelle, 


Zebu, 


Yak, 




Chamois, 


Sheep, 


Deer, 




Gnu. 




ANIMALS WITH 


HORNS. 




Cow, 


Deer, 




Gnu, 


Ox, 


Antelope, 




Zebu, 


Sheep, 


Buffalo, 




Musk-ox, 


Goat, 


Ibex, 




Yak, 


Moose, 


Eeindeer, 




Eland. 




ANIMALS WITH SOFT FEET. 




Cat, 


Fox, 


Camel, 


Mouse, 


Dog, 


Wolf, 


Bear, 


Rat, 


Lion, 


Tiger, 


Rabbit, 


Squirrel, 




ANIMALS WITH SHARP CLAWS 




Cat, 


Panther, 




Eagle, 


Lion, 


Lynx, 




ILawk, 


Tiger, 


Leopard, 




Owl. 




ANIMALS WITH LONG NECKS. 




Horse, 


Camel, 




Llama, 


Deer, 


Giraffe, 




Gazelle. 




ANIMALS WITH LONG LEGS. 




Giraffe, 


Horse, 




Gazelle, 


Camel, 


Deer, 




Chamois, 


Crane, 


Flamingo, 




Heron. 




ANIMALS THAT EAT GRASS. 




Cow, 


Horse, 


Deer, 


Buffalo, 


Sheep, 


Mule, 


Zebu, 


Antelope, 


Goat, 


Ox, 


Gnu, 


Camel, 


Gazelle, 


Elephant, 


Zebra, 


Giraffe. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 



201 



ANIMALS THAT EAT FLESH. 



Cat, 


Lion, 


Weasel, 


Hawk, 


Dog-, 


Tiger, 


Otter, 


Eagle, 


Wolf, 


Leopard, 


Lynx, 


Owl, 


Fox, 


Hyena, 


Jackal, 


Vulture. 




ANIMALS WHOSE FLESH MAN 


EATS. 


Cow, 


Deer, 


Duck, 


Quail, 


Ox, 


Buffalo, 


Goose, 


Pigeon, 


Sheep, 


Squirrel, 


Hen, 


Woodcock, 


Pig, 


liabbit, 


Turkey, 


Partridge. 




ANIMALS "WITH WINGS. 




Hen, 


Canary, 


Hawk, 


Swallow, 


Turkey, 


Robin, 


Owl, 


Bat, 


Duck, 


Sparrow, 


Eagle, 


Wren, 


Goose, 


Pigeon, 


Vulture, 


Quail. 




ANIMALS WITH FUR. 




Beaver, 


Mink, 




Sable, 


Otter, 


Weasel 


> 


Marten, 


Seal, 


Squirrc 


'1, 


ChincLilla. 




9-= 


5- 





202 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACIIIXG. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 
THIRD STAGE. 

[Appropriate for children during their fourth, fifth , aivl sixth years in school.] 

When the pupils have liad a year or two of such expe- 
riences in observing the habits of different kinds of ani- 
mals as is contemplated by the lessons of the second stage^ 
they MuU be fnlly prepared to compare the habits and 
structure of similar animals, and thus become familiar 
with their leading family characteristics. 

The first lessons should commence with animals that 
the pupils can examine personally; as the duck, the hen, 
the cat, the cow, etc. In cases where several animals of 
the same kind cannot be examined personally by the pu- 
pils, pictures may be used as a substitute in making the 
comparisons as to their form and structure. 

The outline of a few lessons is here given, to indicate 
the general plan of conducting the exercises in natural 
liistory for the tJt'ird stage. Following these lessons are 
the names of several other animals, with brief statements 
of facts concerning them, which the teacher may use as 
materials in preparing lessons. In giving these lessons, 
it will be well for the teacher to direct special attention 
of the pupils to one or more of the following points in 
relation to each animal. That point in relation to any 
one which is most familiar to the pupils will indicate 
where the lesson on that animal may commence : 

The hahits of the animal, or what it usually does. 
Where it is found; its mode of living. 
IIoio it moves; kind of food eaten hy it. 
Its structure; whether that of a hird, quadruped, fish, 
reptile, insect, etc. 



LESSONS ON AXIilALS. 203 

Its shape and size. 
Its covering and color. 
Its uses. 

How its structure adapts it to its mode of life, to its 
habits, food, uses, etc. 

THE DUCK. 

If the duck be selected as the subject for the first lesson, let 
the pupils be required, as an introductory exercise, to tell what 
they know already about the shape of the duck's body, head, 
neck, beak, and feet. Let them describe some of the habits of 
the duck — tell Avhat it docs, its uses, color, where found, etc. 

Request the pupils to make further observations, that they may 
ascertain and report at the next lesson how many toes ducks 
have; what is between their toes; how they use their feet; the 
position of the legs on the body; whether the legs are short or 
long; whether their feathers hang loosely, or lap upon each' other 
closely ; what is under their feathers ; about the oiling of their 
feathers; the use of their long necks; their broad bills, with the 
comb-like edges; and what is their food. 

After full observations have been made by the pupils, and re- 
ported in class exercises, request them to name other birds which 
have similar bodies, feet, necks, and bills. Then let the pupils 
make observations to see how these characteristics resemble and 
how they differ from those of the duck, and report concerning 
these also to the class. 

To facilitate this work of observation and comparison, the 
teacher may place before the class a large 2)icture of a duck, and 
let the pupils point out each characteristic that may be seen in 
the picture. Then pictures representing other swimming birds 
may be shown the pupils, that they may compare the character- 
istics of the birds thus represented with those of the duck. 

If the exercises on this subject be properly conducted, the pu- 
pils will learn that the general forms of swimming birds are — 
boat -shaped bodies, short logs, webbed feet, and long necks; and 
tliat all ducks, geese, swans, gulls, and many other birds, belong 
to this group. 



204 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Before leaving this group of Lirds, request the pupils to state 
ill writing their principal characteristics, habits, uses, etc., and to 
give the names of all they can remember as belonging to the or- 
der of sioimming birds. 

THE HEN. 

When the hen is made the subject of a lesson, require the pu- 
pils first to tell all they know about her general shape, size, struct- 
ure, habits, etc. ; then place before them the large picture of a 
turkey, and let them point out parts similar to those of the hen. 

When they have observed that the hen and the turkey have 
heavy bodies, small heads, short wings, strong but not very long 
legs, toes nearly straight, with short, blunt nails — three front toes 
longest, hind toe short and higher than the others ; that their 
beaks are short and stout — tails large; that the hen finds her 
food by scratching the ground; that both spend most of the 
time on the ground ; that their food consists of grain, seeds, and 
insects ; that they usually select some elevated position — as a 
branch of a tree — for a roosting-place at night ; that their young 
are hatched from eggs; — when the pupils have given attention 
to these characteristics, other pictures of this group of birds 
(scratching birds) may be placed before them, that they may 
observe similar forms and characteristics in the birds represented 
by the pictures. The teacher may now tell the pupils a few 
facts about each of the birds in this group : why they are called 
scratchers ; their general habits ; where found ; uses, etc. 

When the exercises on this group of birds are finished, the 
pupils will know that all hens, turkeys, peacocks. Guinea-fowls, 
pheasants, prairie-chickens, quails, partridges, and grouse belong 
to the group of scratchers ; and that pigeons, doves, etc., resemble 
those of this group in many respects. 

THE QUAIL. 

Did you ever hear a bird say, with a whistling voice, "Bob White 
—Bob White ?" or " More wet— more wet !" several times in succes- 
sion ? Some persons think he says, " Buckwheat — buckwheat !" 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 205 

Did you ever see this brownish bird, witli head aud feet of the 
shape of those of a hen, and body about the size of a chicken when 
its feathers begin to grow out? This bird has several names; it is 
called Boh Whitepox a qiiail^'iw the New England and Middle States, 
and Virginia partridge in the Southern States. It belongs to the 
gallinaceous^ or scratching birds, and the grouse family. 

The body, from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail, is about 
nine inches ; wings, extended, from fourteen to fifteen inches ; beak 
short and blunt ; head small ; legs bare ; the front toes rest on the 
ground; hind one short and slender. It lives in fields aud mead- 
ows ; feeds on grain, seeds, and insects ; makes its nest on the 
ground ; lays from eight to ten white eggs. The young quails 
look like young chickens. The flesh of the quail is much prized 
for food. 

Did you ever read the story of a man who caught two young 
quails and tamed tliem ? Did the old quail find them after they 
became tame ? Can you tell that story ? 

THE PRAIRIE-HEN. 

This bird also belongs to the order of scratchei's — to the grouse 
fjimily — and is known as the pinnated grouse ; also as the p)rairie- 
hen. It may be easily tamed. 

It is found in flocks on tlie Western prairies ; length of body, 
from tip of beak to end of tail, sixteen to eighteen inches; wings, 
when extended, are twenty-four to twenty-eight inches ; legs cov- 
ered with feathers; the hind toe higher up on the leg than the 
front toes. It feeds on grains, seeds, and insects. The flesh is highly 
prized for food. It may be seen for sale in markets during autumn 
aud winter. 

The prairie-hen can produce sounds, which may be heard half a 
mile or more, by inflating tlie air sacs under the tuft of feathers at 
the sides of its neck. Did you ever see a prairie-hen ? 

Now request the pupils to write out the chief characteristics as 
to structure, habits, uses, etc., of this group of birds, and to give 
a list of those that belong to it. 

THE CAT. 

After the children have stated all the facts which they have 
discovered by personally observing the cat, place before them a 
large picture of this animal, and request different pupils to point 



20G M.iNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

out each characteristic part wliicli has been noticed in their ex- 
amination of the cat. 

\yhen they have thus shown that their attention has been 
given to the following particularities of this animal — as, round 
bead; short ears; great changes in eyes in light and in dark- 
ness ; sharp teeth ; rough tongue ; feelers ; soft feet ; sharp, hid- 
den nails; difference in number of toes on front and hind feet — 
the teacher may tell the pupils the use of each of these peculiar- 
ities of structure, and add other interesting facts about the cat's 
habits, etc. 

At a subsequent exercise place other pictures of tlie cat family 
before the class, that they may compare each picture with that 
of the cat, and notice prominent resemblances and differences. 
Facts about each member of the cat family thus shown to the 
pupils may be stated to them. Suitable information on this sub- 
ject will be found in Prang''s Natural History Series for Chil- 
dren (Cat Family), and in other books of natural history. 

Before the lessons on this family are finished, the pupils should 
become familiar with the leading characteristics of the cat, and 
of other members of the family — as, the Manx cat, Angora cat, 
wild-cat, lynx, panther, cheetah, jaguar, tiger, leopard, lion, etc. — 
and able to recognize them all as flesh-eating animals with many 
similar habits. 

Facts about the cat of interest to children may be found in 
Lessons on Animals for Second Stage. [See page 181.] Request 
pupils to write descriptions of members of the cat family. 

THE LION. 

After the preceding lesson on the cat family, it would be ap- 
propriate to give a lesson about the lion in a different manner 
from the preceding ones — the teacher giving most of the infor- 
mation, somewhat as follows: 

A few days ago you had a lesson on the cat family, in which it 
was shown that the lion — sometimes called "king of beasts" — be- 
longed to that family. You may call him the great-uncle of the cat. 
I will tell you something about this wonderful animal. His na- 
tive place is in Africa ; also in some parts of Asia. lie likes to 



LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 207 

roam over stony plains, dotted here and tliere witli thickets of 
bushes, in which he can hide and uatch for his prey to come near. 
The home of the lion is ilir from the liome of man. People seldom 
visit the places where lions live, except as they go there to hunt 
wild animals. 

Lions live in i)airs. They are usually from six to eight feet long, 
and from three and a half to four feet high. The weight of one 
is from four to five hundred pounds. Their color is usually a 
tawny yellow. A mane of long hair covers the neck of the male 
lion. The lion has thirty teeth, which are sharp and pointed like 
those of the cat. 

The feet and claws are also like those of the cat in form, but very 
much larger and stronger; and, like the cat, the lion can walk al- 
most noiselessly. Like the cat, tiie lion has a rough tongue ; but tiie 
rough points are much longer and harder than those of the cat. 
Tliese points slant Ijackward, or toward the mouth, and are so strong 
that flesh may be scraped from bones by tliis rough tongue. 

Thus it may be seen that the structure of the lion indicates an an- 
imal of great strength and power in overcoming other animals. It 
is said that the lion can carry a young ox or a sheep in his mouth 
with as much ease as a cat can carry a rat. He cannot run as fast 
as a deer or a zebra, and could not get a good living by chasing his 
game. In the country where the lions live there arc not many springs 
or streams of water ; often the animals must go a long distance to 
quench their thirst. The lion finds those places where the animals 
which he likes for food go to get drink. Near these places he lies 
concealed in a thicket, watching for his prey to come along, just as 
tlie cat watches for tlie mouse to come from its hiding-place. Cat- 
like, the lion springs with a bound, and seizes its prey with his mouth 
and fore -paws. Sometimes it will spring twenty feet at a single 
bound. 

When the lion seizes his prey he usually utters a tcml)le roar, 
which almost paralyzes the victim with fear; but his loudest roar- 
ing is made during the night ; and in those secluded regions it 
must produce great fear among otiier animals. His roar consists 
of a deep-toned, moaning sound, repeated five or six times in quick 
succession, each time increasing in loudness ; ending witii an audi- 
ble sigh. Sometimes several lions may be heard roaring at the same 
time. What a concert exercise ! 

Like the cat, the lion can see well at night; and during this time 
he goes about, while during the day he sleeps most of the time in 
his /«//•, which is usually in a thicket, or by the side of a rock. He 
is commonly seen moving about at sunset, or just before sunrise. 



208 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The liou lias a long tail, ■with a tuft of hair at the eiul, like a tas- 
sel. When angry, he lashes his sides with his tail, just as a cat does 
when it is displeased. It possesses sufficient strength in its tail to 
knock a man down at a single blow. 

Let the pupils write what they can remember concerning the lion. 

THE DOG. 

When the pupils have told what they know about dogs — their 
habits, food, structure, uses, and the different kinds — place large 
pictures of dogs before the class, and let the pupils point out and 
name the different kinds, their parts, etc. 

Direct attention to the attachment of dogs to their masters — 
to their swiftness in running; their keen scent; pointed nose; 
smooth tongue; flesh-tearing teeth; fore feet five-toed; hind 
ones four-toed; thin legs; tails curved upward; and to the fact 
that they are found in all parts of the world. 

Compare their nails, feet, and eyes Avith those of a cat. Dogs 
chase prey ; cats wait for it to come near, then suddenly spring 
upon it. Dogs hunt by day ; cats hunt at night. All the senses 
of the dog arc well developed, especially those of smell and hear- 
ing.* Dog not strictly a carnivorous animal ; when domesti- 
cated, will cat all kinds of food. 

Tell stories about dogs. Let the children read stories about 
them and write about them. 

THE WOLF. 

The tiiolf is a kind of cousin to the dog. He belongs to the 
flesh-eating quadrupeds, and to the dog family. In general ap- 
pearance he is much like the dog, and his hair is longer, but he 
lets his tail hang, instead of curving it upward like the dog. 

The wolf growls and howls, but does not bark like a dog. Al- 
though he is cunning and ferocious, he has not the dog's noble 
courage. He lives in forests, hunts at night, and usually in packs. 
Wolves are very destructive to sheep. 

Tell a story about wolves, and request the pupils to read about 
them at home ; also to write about them. 

* See Lesson on the Bog for Second Stage, p. 185. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 



209 



Foxes, like wolves, belong to the dog family. They have heads, 
teeth, and ears much like some dogs. Foxes hunt at night, but 
singly. 

THE COW. 

By requiring the pupils to state what they have observed in re- 
lation to the cow's food, her peculiar manner of eating, her feet, 
horns, teeth, and the several uses of the cow ; by stimulating 
them to make further and more careful observations of cows, 
sheep, goats, deer, etc. ; by the use of pictures, and by awakening a 
desire to read books of natural history — seek to make the pupils 
acquainted with the chief peculiarities of the cud-chewinr/ animals. 

Direct their attention to the following facts concerning the 
group embracing the cow, ox, bison, sheep, goat, yak, zebu, ante- 
lope, etc. — that these have hollow horns ; feed on grass, etc. ; 
that they chew their food twice ; that they are generally timid 
animals, and seek safety in flight ; that they have parted, or cloven 
hoofs. [The teacher should sketch the hoof on the blackboard.] 





OLOVEN-IIOOF. 



6KUI.L OF A COW. 



The pupils may also be led to notice from a sketch on the black- 
board — also from observing the mouth of a goat, sheep, or cow 
— that they have no front teeth on the upper jaw ; and also 
to notice that they get up on their hind feet first ; that these 
animals are of great service to man ; that they supply us with 
numerous articles for food, clothing, and other purposes, which 
contribute much to our comfort. 

Lead the pupils to write all the facts they know about the cow 
and the ox at the close of the lesson. 



210 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

THE SHEEP. 

The sheep is so familiar to children that they will be able to 
state many facts which can be used by the teacher as the basis 
of lessons about this animal. They can tell something about their 
uses — their wool for clothing, their flesh for food, their skins for 
leather, their tallow, etc. They may also know the names and 
distinguishing cbaracteristics of the Merino, with its large horns, 
small body, and very fine, soft wool ; or of the Soiithdowns, with 
their dark faces, long necks, coarse wool, large bodies — without 
horns — and the excellent mutton from their flesh ; or of the 
Leicester, without horns, with straight, round bodies, broad backs, 
and very long avooI. 

Direct attention of the pupils to their cloven hoofs ; cud-chew- 
ing ; feeding upon grass, grain, and vegetables; no front teeth on 
upper jaw ; long, slender head ; horns much curved, and rough, 
like ridges. 

Call attention to the fact that sheep follow a leader, and that, 
like some children, they do as their leader does, without thinking 
for themselves. Did you ever hear any children say what the 
others do, without thinking whether it is right? The common 
sheep is called a stnpid animal, because if one of the flock should 
jump into a deep ditch, the others would follow, apparently with- 
out looking to see where they are going. 

The sheep belongs to the branch vertebrates ; c\a?,%, mammalia ; 
ovdcr, rnminants ; iamWy, ox, sheep, etc. \ genus, oi'/s. They get 
up on their hind feet first; live in flocks; their young are very 
playful. Did you ever see lambs play ? 

THE CAMEL. 

Introduction by the Teacher. — Far away, across the wide ocean, 
in the countries called Africa and Asia, tliere are many large deserts 
of sand. In these deserts there are no trees, no soft, green grasses, no 
rains, no rivers, no roads, no houses, and no people living there. The 
sand is so fine and dry that tlie winds cany it about in great clouds. 
It is so soft that even a child would sink into it over its shoes when 
walking. Horses cannot travel there, because their feet would sink 
so deeply into the sand; besides, tliey would die of thirst and huu- 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 211 

ger before they could rcficli a place where food and water might be 
obtained. Yet the people who live near these pathless deserts often 
want to cross them, and to carry goods on tlicse dreary journeys. 

God has created an animal which is titted to live in just such a 
country. It is so formed that it can travel in soft sand, and live a 
long time without food or water. Now I will show you a picture 
of that wonderful animal, and we will talk about its structure and 
habits. [Showing a picture of a camel.] Here is the picture. Can 
you tell the name of this animal ? 

Its Feet. — Now look at its feet. Are they like the feet of a 
liorsc ? The feet of the camel arc long and broad, and soft and 
tough. They are broad and soft, and become so much spread out 
under the weight of the animal that they sink but little in the sand; 
they are so tough that the sand does not hurt them. Tiie small, 
hard foot of a horse would sink so far in the sand that the horse 
would soon become exhausted; tiie cushion-shaped feet of the camel 
prevent its sinking, and thus enable it to travel a long distance with- 
out fatigue. Its feet would become sore on stony roads, and they are 
not fitted for travelling in wet places. The camel was made for a 
dry and sandy country. 

Its Legs. — Do you see the h gs of the camel ? What can you say 
of them? They are long and slender, and fit the camel for rapid 
travelling. 

Its Neck. — What sort of a neck has the camel ? It has a very 
long, curved, and slender neck. This is to allow its head to reach 
the ground easily for food and water. 

Its Head and Ears. — Can you see its ears ? lias it a large, round 
head? No; its head is long and slender, and its ears are (piite 
small. 

Its Nostrils. — The nostrils of the camel are so formed that it can 
close them at will. This enables it to keep out the drifting sand, 
and prevents a great deal of pain and injury to the animal. Its 
sense of smell is very acute; it can smell water at a great distance, 
and by this means it sometimes saves the life of its master. 

Its Size and Shape. — The body of the camel is about the size 
of a horse, but its back resembles an arch instead of being nearly 
straight, like that of the cow or horse. It is generally taller than 
a horse, being from five to seven feet high. 

Its Hump. — Is the back of the camel like the back of a horse or 
a cow? No; it has a liump on its back. This hump is a mass of 
fat. When the camel is fat, the hump is very large; but when tlie 



212 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

animal is lean, the hump h sniall. When the camel, on its long 
journey across the desert, is obliged to subsist on a very small al- 
lowance of food, or even to go without food, the fat of the hump 
supi)lies nutriment. Its substance is absorbed and taken into the 
general circulation, and thus supports the animal to the end of its 
journey, or until it sinks under privations which no other animal 
could have borne for half the time. 

Its Food. — What did I say about the deserts across which tlie 
camel travels ? They contain no trees, and no green grass. In some 
places, however, there may be found prickly shrubs and a dry, coarse 
grass, but only in small sjiots. No horse or donkey would eat such 
food ; yet the camel seems quite contented if, when it stops to rest 
for the night, it can find even such coarse food as thorny shrubs and 
dry, coarse grass. Its master, however, usually takes along with him 
dates and beans, aud a few of these seem to satisfy its hunger when 
a regular meal cannot be had. The camel chews its cud, like the 
cow, the sheep, aud the goat. 

Its Driiik. — You remember I told you that there were no rains 
and no rivers in the desert. Frequently it is necessary to travel ten 
or twelve days without finding a spring or a well of water. During 
all this time the camel must go without drinking. Here we see the 
beneficence of the Creator in the formation of an animal so well 
adapted to meet the wants of man. The camel has four stomachs ; 
one of these is provided with a great number of water-cells ; and 
before setting out on a journey he drinks a great quantity of water, 
filling all of these cells. The water thus stored up in its stomach 
lasts for a long time; and whenever it desires to do so, the camel 
can make use of a little of this water tb moisten its food and refresh 
itself. By this means it can travel a long distance without suffering 
from thirst. 

Its Habits aiid Uses. — When kindly treated, the camel is gentle, 
patient, aud easily taught. It kneels down to receive its load, and 
kneels down again to have it removed at night; also to let its mas- 
ter mount and dismount. At night it lies down by its master's tent. 
In the morning it comes at his call to receive its load. 

The camel furnishes milk for its master's family. It carries them 
on its back during the day, and often its side serves them as a pil- 
low at night. Its body is a shelter against the Avhirlwinds of sand, 
and in battle an intrenclunent behind which the family and their 
property are protected. The hair of the camel supplies materials 
for clothes and tents; of its skin are made sandals for the feet, sad- 
dles upon which to ride, buckets for water, and large bottles for car- 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 213 

rying M'Htcr to supply tlio traveller on his long journeys across the 
desert. Its flesh is used for food. 

The camel may be regarded as one of the most useful of animals. 
The Arabs consider it as a "gift of Heaven," a sacred animal, with- 
out whose assistance they could neither travel, traffic, nor subsist. 
They call it the " Ship of the Desert," for it bears them sftfely over 
the pathless wastes of Arabia and Northern Africa, under privations 
wliich no other animal could endure. 

The usual load of a camel is from six to eight hundred pounds ; 
and with this weight on his back he will travel from forty to fifty 
miles in a day. But the camel that is trained for speed will bear 
its master and his food on its back, and travel from seventy to one 
hundred miles in twenty-four hours, and continue at this speed for 
several days in succession. It sometimes jierforms a journey of seven 
hundred miles. 

Training the Young Camel. — When the Arab desires a camel for 
speed, he takes it when quite young, folds its limbs under its body, 
and while in this situation on the ground he loads its back. This 
weight is removed only to be replaced by a heavier one. Instead of 
allowing it to feed at pleasure and drink Avhen thirsty, he regulates 
its meals and drink, and gradually trains it to travel long journeys, 
and diminishes at the same time the quantity of its food. When it 
has thus acquired strength and endurance, it is trained to move with 
speed. In this manner it becomes robust and fleet, and capable of 
great endurance. 

Review the Lesson. — When tlie preceding- facts relative to 
the camel have all been given, the teacher should require the pu- 
pils to tell all they can remember about this animal. At first, 
any pupil that can think of anything to say may raise a hand, 
and the teacher proceed to call upon them, one at a time, to say 
what they remember, care being taken to have as little as possible 
repeated. Subsequently the pupils may be called upon in turn, 
and more system be required in the order of stating the facts. 

Afterward they should be directed to write all they can re- 
member about the camel, and state what group of animals it be- 
longs to. 

In this connection the attention of the pupils may be directed 
to the form and habits of the Giraffe, also to those cud-chewing 
animals found in South America — the Llama and the Guanaco — 
which belong to the liornlcss ruminants. 



21-i MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUING. 



THE DRAGON-FLY. 

Introduction by the Teacher. — JMost children are very much 
frightened when they see a hirge insect living about which they call 
a " darning-needle," or the " devil's darning-needle." They think it 
can sting or bite them, or get in their ears. Some older persons 
have a dread of it ; so that it has many enemies, and but few friends. 
Now, before looking at this insect or its picture, and before talking 
about its habits and life, let me assure you that there is no cause 
either of fear or dislike for this harmless creature, which is really 
very useful to us in destroying mosquitoes and flies. It cannot bite, 
or sting, or poison, or do any injury to any person. It is just as 
harmless as a butterfly. When you have learned more about tliis 
insect, you will understand iiow useless are the fears which children 
have of it; and I hope you will learn also to welcome its restless, 
rapid movements in pursuit of mosquitoes and flies, through gar- 
dens, over ponds, and even in the house, rather than scream and run 
away from it. Now let us examine this dragon-jiy — that is the real 
name of this insect. What can you say about it? 

Children. It has four wings. It has a long, slender body. The 
shape of the body is cylindrical. It has a large head. Its wings are 
oblong. They are very thin, and almost transparent. The wings 
look something like net-work. It has ten rings around its body. 
It has six legs. It has two large eyes. It has two feelers. 

Teacher. Very well said. See its great head, large eyes, short neck, 
its hunch-back, and long, slender body, its gauze-like wings, and its 
l)eautii'ul colors ! I told you that it is useful to us in destroying- 
mosquitoes. It catches them with its feet while flying, and devours 
them. If a few dragon-flies were shut up in a room for a short time, 
tliey would elfectually rid it of all moscjuitoes and flics. 

Eggs of the Dragon fly. — Tiic dragon-fly alights upon stems of 
rushes or other water-])lants, and deposits its eggs below the surface 
of the water, frequently attaching them in a bunch to a stem or leaf. 
These eggs are hatched during the warm weather of summer by the 
heat of the sun. 

The Larva or Grub. — At first the larva or grub of the dragon-fly 
resembles a bug, with large eyes and six long legs. In this state it 
is very active, walking over the bottom of the pond of water it in- 
habits, or swimming in search of the larva of mosquitoes and other 
insects, of which it devours great numbers. It tlius aids in dimin- 
ishing and removing from ponds and swamjis, and also from our 
fields, gardens, and houses even, swarms of hlood-suc^king insects. 



LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 2' 

The Pupa. — When the larva has outgrown its skin, tins spli. 
open at the back, and the insect crawls out, thus changing from 
the larva to the pupa state. It still continues to live in the water, 
remaining there in all some ten or twelve mouths. As before, its 
food is chiefly the larva of mosquitoes. 

The Dragon-fly. — When the pupa has grown too large for its 
skin, and is about to change into the full -formed dragon -fl}% it 
climbs up the stem of some plant near the surface of the water. 
AVhile it remains there, its skin again splits oj^en at the back, and 
the dragon-fly emerges slowly. For an hour or two it remains quiet, 
with its soft wings motionless. Soon the surface of the Ijody dries 
and hardens, and at lengtli the full-formed dragon-fly exjwnds its 
wings and rises into the air, henceforth to live in a new world, al- 
though its existence in this state lasts but a few weeks. It is by far 
the most powerfid flier among insects. It can fly in all directions 
with equal facility, forward and backward, and sidewise, to the right 
or left. 

While it was an inhabitant of water, it devoured the young of 
mosquitoes ; now it pursues the full-grown mosquito on the wing 
with relentless energy. From the moment of its birtii to the hour 
of its deafli it riots upon baneful insects ; thus its Avliole life is a 
continued good to man. It seems to have been sent into the world 
by a kind Providence to prevent too great an increase of those in- 
sects which arc most annoying to man. 

Teacher. Now I will write on the blackboard the names of the 
parts of tlie dragon-fly, and of the shape of each ; also some other 
facts. Then I want you to describe the dragon-fly, telling all yon 
can remember about it. 

THE DRAGON-FLY. 
Its Parts. Shape. Facts. 

Body Cvlindrical 1 t,. r i • -i. t xt- 

-rrr. ^v , Its lood IS mosouitocs and flies. 

Wmgs Oblong t. • •.• ^ ^ i r n 

T ^. , T It IS usctul to man, and i)erlectly 

Legs Crooked i , i i j 

TT 1 r., 1 y harmless. 

Head Oblong I t, i i + *i • * ^ -i 

_ r> I belongs to the msect tribe. 

-C , ,, ' "" Its body is divided into three parts. 

Feelers Carved J "' ^ 



Now request the pupils to write an account of the dracfon-fly. 
Ask them to watch tlie movements as it flics about ponds, gar- 
dens, and other phices, in pursuit of food. Tell tlicm also to 
catch a dra<j;on-flv and examine its wings, liead, and bodv. 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 



THE OSTRICH. 



Introduction by the Teacher. — I am now going to talk Avitli 
you about the largest bird, the tallest bird, and the swiftest running 
bird in the world. But tirst I will show you a picture of this re- 
markable bird, and you may tell me all you can about its sha])e and 
size, and its name^ if you know what it is. Here is the picture. 
[Showing tlie picture of an ostrich. The children should be re- 
quired to answer singly; and they might give the following and 
other similar replies :] 

Children. It is an ostrich. It has a long, slender neck, and a small 
head. It has long legs. It has only tico toes on each foot, and one 
is so much shorter than the other that it does not look much like a 
toe. It has a large body. It has short wings. Its colors are black 
and white. 

Teacher. Ostriches are found in the sandy countries of Asia and 
Africa. They are usually seen in flocks or droves. Frequently they 
do great injury to grain by entering the fields, and destroying the 
ears so completely that nothing is left but the bare straw. 

I told you that tliis is the largest and tallest bird in the world. 
You may better understand how large it is when I tell you that the 
head of the ostrich is as high as your head would be were you sit- 
ting on the back of a tall horse. It is usually from seven to eight 
feet in height. You remember that I also told you that tliis is the 
swiftest running bird in the world. No other animal can run so 
fast as the ostrich. A fast-running horse, you know, can run a mile 
in about three minutes ; yet a horse cannot overtake an ostrich by 
following its track. No hunter on the fleetest horse could capture 
this bird if it should run in a straight line ; but the ostrich always 
runs in cuiwes; and as soon as its course is ascertained, the hunter 
takes a straight line, passing over a much shorter sj^ace, intercepts 
and shoots the bird as it dashes past him. While running, the os- 
trich uses its short wings as oars to increase its speed. These are 
too small for flying. Tlie Arabs hunt the ostrich for its beautiful 
plumage. The feathers of its tail and wings are long and soft, and 
are much used as ornaments for ladies' bonnets. These feathers are 
very valuable ; in their unprepared state they cost from eighty to 
one hundred dollars per pound. The skin of the ostrich is very 
thick and tough, and is used for leather. Some warlike tribes in 
Africa use the ostrich's skin for shields and other defensive armor. 
Its flesh, which is coarse, and somewhat like that of a tough turkey, 
is used for food. 

The eggs are considered a great delicacy by the natives. They 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 21 

cook them in hot ashes; and, through a hole made in the end of the 
shell, they stir the contents round until the substance becomes thick 
like an omelet. The weight of an egg is about three pounds. 

The nest of the ostrich is simply a hollow scratched in the sand, 
in which are deposited from twenty to thirty eggs. Besides these, 
there are several eggs, in separate small hollows in the sand, around 
but not far from the nest. These eggs are intended as food for the 
young ostrich when first hatched. In the tropical regions the egg3 
are buried in the sand, and hatched by the heat of the sun ; but in 
cooler climates the male and female take turns in sitting on the 
eggs. They defend their young with much courage. When hunted 
by dogs and overtaken, they will fight desperately. The ostrich has 
been called the " camel-bird." 

You said the ostrich has a long, slender nock and a small head. 
The neck and head are covered with hairs instead of feathers. The 
eyes are protected from the intense heat of tlie sun and tiie fine 
sand of the desert by a peculiar lid, which can be drawn down at 
pleasure. 

Is the beak of the ostrich like that of a hen or that of a goose? 

Children. It is most like that of a goose ? 

Teacher. The ostrich is a great eater. Its usual food embraces 
the tops of shrubby plants, grains, seeds, etc. ; but it will swallow 
greedily rags, leather, wood, stone, nails, keys, or pieces of money. 

The Ostrich Family. — Besides the African Ostrich,there are four 
other kinds of large, running birds. All of these are remarkable 
for the great size of their bodies, ' their long, slender necTcs; their long 
and strong legs; their very short wings; their great speed. They are 
called the Ainerican Ostrich, or Rhea; the Cassowary ; tlie Emeu; the 
Apteryx. 

The American Ostrich. — The American ostrich, or rhea, is found 
in Brazil, South America. It is much smaller than the African os- 
trich ; has three toes on each foot, all furnished with claws. It is 
of a gray color. Its feathers are of but little value. 

The Cassowary is found in the large islands of the south-eastern 
part of Asia. It is about five feet in height; has three toes on each 
foot, provided with nails. Its covering or feathers resembles the 
hair of a horse's mane. Tlie head is armed witli a kind of helmet, 
composed of a horny substance. In running, it can outstrip the 
swiftest greyhound. Like tlie African ostrich, it will swallow almost 
anything tliat is oflcred to it which is not too large to pass down 
its throat. The color of the eyes is a Itriglit yellow. It defends 

10 



l8 manual of OB ject-te aching. 

itself by kicking like a horse, or running forcibly against its enemy, 
knocking it down, and treading it under foot. 

The Emeu. — The emeu is found in Australia. It is from five to 
seven feet in height. It is very much like the African ostrich in 
form and habits, but differs much from it in other respects. It is 
exceedingly shy, and it is very difficult to get within gunshot of 
one. The covering of the body, instead of being soft, beautiful 
feathers like those of the ostrich, resembles thin strips of whale- 
bone, or coarse, long hair. Its food consists of fruit, roots, and 
berbage. Its eggs, like those of the ostrich, are used for food by 
the natives. The male bird site on the eggs, hatches the young, and 
takes the chief care of them. 

The Apteryx. — ^The apteryx is an inhabitant of New Zealand. 
It is about two feet in height, and of a dark-brown color. It runs 
■with great rapidity when pursued, and takes refuge in the holes of 
rocks or among the roots of trees. Its bill is very long. It drives 
this into the soil to gatlier earth-worms, which constitute its prin- 
cipal food. This bird lives in pairs, constructs a rough nest, and 
lays a single egg about the size of that of a goose. The flesh is 
esteemed by the New Zealanders, and they use its skin and feathers 
for cloaks. 

All of these birds belong to the -Cursores, or short-winged, run- 
ning birds. 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 219 



NOTES FOR LESSONS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 

To insure success with lessons in natural history, and 
prepare pupils for understanding classifications, the teach- 
er must be able to guide them so that they shall observe 
those distinctive and important characteristics of animals 
by which the classification is determined. Facts that are 
commonly needed by teachers for this purpose are not 
readily accessible to them ; and the purpose of these 
Notes for Lessons is to add to the previous lessons a suf- 
ficient variety of such distinguishing facts about other 
animals as will enable any good teacher to conduct a se- 
ries of lessons on this subject with profit to the pupils. 

In the following notes may be found most of those 
characteristics tliat distinguish the animals mentioned, 
and indicate the class to which each belongs. The com- 
mon descriptions of animals and interesting stories con- 
cerning them may be easily obtained, by both teacher and 
pupils, from the books on natural history within their 
reach ; and to some extent from the reading books used 
in school. It is intended that the pupils and teacher 
shall obtain such information from books, in addition to 
what they may gather from personal observation, and 
each contribute something of interest concerning the an- 
imal that is made the subject of a lesson ; also that the 
facts stated in these notes shall be incorporated with the 
information thus gathered, and the lessons thereby made 
complete. 

The most important distinguishing facts, together with 
much interesting information relating to the habits and 
structure of the several animals belonging to the groups 



220 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

known as swimming hirds ; loading hirds ; scratching 
hirds / hirds of prey ; cat family ; cow family, or hollow- 
horned ruminants ; deer family, or solid - horned rumi- 
nants ; camel family, or hornless ruminants ; squirrel 
family, or rodents; and weasel family, iMv producers — 
may be obtained, for notes of lessons, from Prang'' s Nat- 
ural History Series for Children^-'' and from the Manual 
for Prang'' s Natural History Series for ScJiools,\ which 
embrace descriptions and illustrative colored pictures of 
more than one hundred animals. 

The teacher wull also find important facts to aid in giv- 
ing these lessons in an article following this, on " Classi- 
fication of Animals," page 229. The facts given there 
will show the relations of different animals to each other, 
and the classes to which they belong, thus supplementing 
these notes. 

As a useful closing exercise for the lessons on an ani- 
mal, request the pupils to write the most important facts 
relating to that animal, give its classification, and mention 
its chief uses, or add a short &toYy about it. Let these 
summaries of the lessons be read before the class, and 
corrections made by the pupils nnder the guidance of the 
teacher, thus combining, with the knowledge of natural 
history, practical instruction in language and composition, 

THE HORSE. 

The largest and most beautiful of the single-hoofed quadrupeds 
is the horse. It has a long head, long neck, small pointed ears, 
loose mane, long, hairy tail, leg's long and slender, and is adapted 
to speed. It belongs to the class, mammals ; order, hoofed-quad- 
rupeds ; family, horse. It feeds on grass and grains ; is very 
scrupulous in the choice of its food ; does not chew its food a 

* Prepared by N. A. Calkins and Mrs. A. M. Diuz. 

+ Prepared by N. A. Calkins. Publislied by Messrs. L. Prang & Co., Bos- 
ton, Mass. 



LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 221 

second time. Tlie horse gets up on its forefeet iirst. It is 
found in all countries ; forms a strong attachment to other horses 
and to man ; its uses are well known. 

The Pony is a very small horse, and is a native of the Shet- 
land Islands, 

Request the pupils to give the names and uses of differ- 
ent kinds of horses. 

THE ELEPHANT. 

The elephant belongs to a group of thick-skinned animals. It 
is a quadruped ; a native of Asia, also of Africa. The Asiatic 
Elephant has a long head, concave forehead, small ears, and short 
tusks ; the African Elephant has a round head, convex forehead, 
large ears, and lonr/ tusks. 

The skin of the elephant is rcvy thick, rough, and nearly naked ; 
the body is very large and heavy, being from ten to fifteen feet 
long, and seven to eight feet high ; neck sliort and stout ; head 
large ; eyes small ; has two tusks projecting from the sides of 
the mouth ; has a very large and long nose, called a trunk or 
proboscis. This is an organ of smell, of touch, of feeling, and a 
weapon of defence. It can pick up very small articles of food 
with the finger at the end of the trunk, and place them in its 
mouth. It can draw up water with its trunk, and pour it into 
its mouth or throw it over its body. The Asiatic elephant may 
be tamed, and made useful in many ways. The African elephant 
cannot be easily domesticated. 

Let the pupils relate or write interesting stories about 
elephants, their tricks, uses, etc. 

THE RHINOCEROS. 

This animal belongs also to the thick-skinned quadrupeds; in- 
deed, its skin is naked, and so thick and hard that it will resist 
an ordinary lead bullet when fired from a rifie. The skin of the 
Asiatic Rhinoceros is so stltf that folds or plaits arc necessary 



222 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

near the principal joints of the body to allow the animal to move 
its limbs freely. 

The rhinoceros is from ten to twelve feet long, and from five 
to seven feet in height. Its upper lip is long and pointed, and 
is used in picking up its food. It feeds on grass, branches of 
trees, and other vegetable substances. It lives in shady forests 
on the marshy borders of rivers and lakes. It has a horn on its 
nose, composed of horny fibres, like coarse liair. This grows from 
the skin of the nose, and is not attached to the bone of the head. 
This horn is sometimes three feet in length, and is a powerful 
■weapon of defence. 

The African RhiBoceros lias two horns on its nose — one sliort- 
er than the other; and its skin is comparatively smooth, and 
without the heavy folds found on those of Asia. 

This animal moves about most after sunset, and spends the day 
in sleep. It wallows in the mire to protect itself from bites of 
troublesome insects that get under the folds of its skin. 

THE PIG. 

This well-known quadruped is found in all parts of the world. 
It has cloven hoofs, hut does not clieio its cud ; cats vegetables, 
roots, grains, and flesh ; is greedy and filthy in its habits ; has a 
tapering, pointed head, with nostrils at the end of its snout ; has 
a flexible rim at the end of its nose or snout, suitable for rooting 
up the ground, which it does in search of food. Its flesh is called 
pork, bacon, ham, and is used for food ; its fat is called lard, and 
is used for cooking. The pig is covered with coarse bristles; its 
skin is thick, and is made into leather, from which saddles are 
made. 

THE PORCUPINE. 

A quadruped, about two feet long, that feeds on leaves, bark, 
corn, fruit, and other vegetables ; head thick ; eyes small ; muzzle 
blunt; belongs to the family of gnawers; burrows in stony soil; 
limbs short and strong; feet have thick, strong nails, adapted to 
digging; tongue rough; skin covered with spines or quills, from 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 223 

one to four inches long ; -svlien irritated, it erects these spines a^ 
an armor of defence ; it usually remains in its burrow during the 
daytime, and comes out for food at night; it sleeps during cold 
weather. The crested porcupine of the Old World has spines, or 
quills, from eight to twelve inches long, and about the size of a 
goose-quill. 

THE RAT. * 

Show picture of rat and mouse. Let pupils mention 
their resemblances ; observe tliat both are gnawing ani- 
mals; that they are timid, but defend themselves by biting 
when nnable to escape by running away. They feed 
chiefly on nuts, grains, and other vegetable food; eat flesh 
when forced by luinger; live in holes about dwellings, 
barns, etc. ; sit on hind feet, and hold food in front paws 
when eating; have chisel-shaped teeth ; long tails, without 
liair ; some kinds live in banks of streams, where they 
feed chiefly on roots. 

The rat is a mammal ; belongs to the group of rodents ; family, 
rats ; is noted for its burrowing habits ; will make its way by 
digging and gnawing through almost any substance, except stone 
and hard metals. It lives in colonics ; is very destructive, and 
difficult to destroy. It avoids pine tar; hence paper on which 
a thick coating of pine tar is spread, placed over a rat-hole, will 
keep the rat from entering the hole as long as the tar remains 
fresh. The Norway, or common brown rat, finds its way to every 
part of the world where man makes his habitation. 

THE SEA-LION. 

This animal is found on the shores of the Northern Pacific 
Ocean; it is a mammal, amphibious and carnivorous, and be- 
longs to the family of eared-seals. It is from ten to fifteen feet 
long; weighs from 1000 to 1800 pounds; color light brown; shape 
of head somewhat like that of a dog; voice loud, with repeating 
sounds resembling the rapid baying of a hound. It moves awk- 



224 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Avardly on land ; has fin-like feet, adapted to swimming ; feeds 
chiefly on fish. 

The three families — common seal, sea-hear ov far-seal, and %val- 
rus — beloni); to the same order. 



THE WHALE. 

This is the largest of living creatures, being from fifty to seventy 
feet long, and more than thirty feet around its body. It is not a 
fish, although it lives in the water and swims like a fish. It can- 
not breathe under water, and would drown if it could not come 
to the surface to get air. The whale breathes by lungs, through 
nostrils which are situated at or near the top of the head. These 
nostrils generally unite in a single opening at the surface, called 
the " blow-hole," which may be closed at the pleasure of the an- 
imal, so as to keep out the Avater as the whale dives below the 
surface. 

The whale can remain under Avater for a long time without 
breathing ; but it usually returns to the surface in ten or twenty 
minutes, when it blows a column of spray from its nostrils several 
times, in alternation with inhaling fresh supplies of air, and then 
disappears again. Whales have warm blood, smooth skin, be- 
neath which there is a layer of fat, called " blubber," from ten to 
twenty inches thick. This substance is elastic, and, being lighter 
than water, it contributes to the buoyancy of these great animals. 
The body of a dead whale will float while the blubber remains on 
it, but when this is stripped oflE the carcass sinks. Sometimes 
from twenty to thirty tons of blubber are taken from a single 
Avhale, and from Avhich one hundred and fifty to two hundred 
barrels of oil are obtained. 

Whales belong to the class mammalia ; order, cetacea. The 
rir/ht-tvhales are found chiefly in the Avaters of the far-Northern 
and far-Southern oceans. The sperm-ivhales are found in Avarmer 
regions of the ocean. The kinds that are most valuable are the 
Spenn-Avhale, and the Right or Greenland "WTiale. The sperm- 
Avhale has teeth, and feeds on small fish, squids, or cuttle-fish. 
The Greenland Avhale has no teeth ; but from the sides of its up- 



LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 225 

per jaw are suspended layers of whalebone [see pages 155, 156], 
which enable this animal, as it swims back and forth through 
shoals of shrimps, small crabs and mollusts, and other minute 
marine animals, scooping them up with its immense mouth, to 
strain out the water and retain its food. The head of this whale 
is about one-third the entire length of the animal. 

The young whale is called a calf. The mother takes great care 
of it, sometimes carrying it on her tail as she swims. She re- 
mains near it when in danger, and will even lose her own life in 
its defence. 

Whales, dolphins, 2Jorpoiscs,wi\di nariuhals belong to the same 
order of animals. 

THE WOODPECKER. 

This bird is commonly classed with the climbing birds, because 
two of its toes arc turned forward and two backward, and its 
habit of climbing on the trunks of old trees. It is included in 
the order Ficaricc, and family picidcc, or woodpeckers. The red- 
headed woodpecker has a back of glossy blue-black ; head, neck, 
and breast of crimson ; under parts, pure white. Length is about 
nine inches ; extent of wings about seventeen inches ; bill strong 
and sharp-pointed ; tongue long, sharp, armed near the point with 
a barb, and may be extended several inches beyond the bill. This 
bird moves about the tree, in climbing, with its head upward. 
It taps on the bark of the tree to find the location of an insect ; 
then cuts a hole through the bark to the grub, and thrusts the 
barbed tongue into the grub, and then pulls it into its mouth. 
The number of insects and larvaj which these birds thus destroy 
is incalculable ; and thereby they do great good. Their boring 
does not injure the trees as much as the presence of the insect 
docs when it is left to hatch out. 

The woodpecker builds its nest in holes which it makes in dead 
trees. These holes arc often excavated to a depth of several 
inches below the opening. Tins bird has great force in its neck 
and head. The eggs are nearly round, and of a pure white. 

10* 



226 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACH L\G. 

THE CUCKOO. 

The yellow-billed cuckoo belongs to the order Picarice, and 
family cuckoo. The members of this family feed on insects, and 
are distinguished by their cry, wliich is most frequently heard be- 
fore a rain ; hence the cuclcoo is sometimes called the " rain-crow." 
This American bird builds its rude nest of twigs in the fork 
of a tree, and hatches its own young. The European Cuckoo 
does not build a nest ; it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, 
and leaves them to be hatched by these foster-parents. It is 
common for the young cuckoo thus hatched to crowd the young 
of the other bird out of the nest, thus obtaining more room, and 
all the food. 

THE WHIPPOORWILL. 

This bird belongs to the order Picarice ; family, night-jars, 
and the group of screeching birds. It is well-known by its loud, 
whistling cry of " whip-poor-will ;" but it is seldom seen, as it is 
nocturnal in its habits. It sleeps in the daytime on a fallen trunk 
of a tree, or on a low branch, and sits, while sleeping, with its 
body parallel to the trunk or limb, instead of crosswise on the 
branch, as birds usually sit. Its strange notes are heard during 
the evening. It feeds on insects, which it catches during the 
evening twilight. 

It has a wide mouth, which is fringed with stiff bristles, and 
moistened with a glutinous substance; these aid in catching the 
insects. The length of this bird is about ten inches ; the wings, 
when extended, are about nineteen inches. 

THE KINGBIRD. 

The kingbird is about eight inches long, of a dark ash color 
on the back, white underneath, and tail tipped with white. This 
well-known bird, also the crested flycatcher and the 2}hoebe-bird, 
belong to that group of perchers called singing birds, but whose 
voices are harsh. They all belong to the family of tyrants, be- 
cause of their bold and cruel habits. 

They are rapid in flight, have bills adapted to catching winged 



LESSONS ON ANIiLiLS. 227 

insects, and tliey live entirely lipon insect food. They usually 
perch on some prominent place, wait for a passing insect, toward 
Avhich they dart suddenly, seize and swallow it, and return to their 
■waiting-place. 

The Kingbird destroys thousands of injurious insects for every 
honey-bee that it kills. It will attack hawks, crows, and even ea- 
gles, and drive them away, during its breeding season in May and 
June. 

The Great Crested Flycatcher is somewhat larger than the 
kingbird. It feeds on insects, much in the same manner as the 
kingbird. It has a loud, harsh voice, and quarrelsome habits. 
Its color is olive-brown on the back, yellow on the under parts. 
It sometimes uses cast-off snake skins in building its nest. 

The Phoebe-bird, or Pewee, is also a flycatcher. Its color is 
an olive-brown above, yellowish on the under parts. Its voice is 
soft and somewhat drawling, and its notes sound like " phe-bc," 
or " pc-wee ;" hence its name. 

THE SPARROWS. 

There are several kinds of sparrows, all of whicb belong to the 
group oiperchers known as singing birds. They are classed with 
the family oi finches, which is the largest family known in Amer- 
ica. It includes about one-eighth of all our birds, and numbers 
about five hundred species. The size and general appearance of 
these birds are well known. Their chief food is insects, and they 
are of great service in destroying vast numbers of these enemies 
to vegetation. 

The Song Sparrow — a well-known and pleasing songster — is 
one of the harbingers of spring. It builds its nest in a low shrub, 
and feeds upon insects. It is about six inches in length. 

The Chipping Sparrow, or chip-bird, builds its nest on very 
low bushes, or in a bnnch of grass. Its nest is made of fine, dry 
grass, and lined with cow hair. The eggs are four or five in num- 
ber, greenish-blue and speckled. It feeds on insects. This bird 
is familiar in the fields and gardens. 



228 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The English Sparrow, whicli was imported to this country a 
few years ago from England, has become naturalized in large cit- 
ies and towns, where it has proved very beneficial in destroying 
the canker-worm that infests our shade trees. This bird multi- 
plies rapidly ; is very belligerent ; remains all winter in our cities. 
Fears are entertained that this sparrow will drive away many of 
our native birds. 

The Snow-bii-d belongs to the order of 2^crclws, family of 
finches, genus Junco. It somewhat resembles the sparrow, but 
it belongs to a different genus. It is common in the United 
States from October to April, but spends its summer far to the 
north, among mountains, where it raises its young. 

The Snow-bunting has a lighter plumage than the snow-bird. 
It spends the summer in the northern parts of North America, 
and visits the United States in flocks during winter. 

Other Lessons. — Similar lessons may be given on oth- 
er classes of animals, embracing insects, fish, reptiles, etc. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 229 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 

Classification changes facts into knowledge. Facts 
become useful when their relations are discovered, and 
they are associated in groups according to their rela- 
tions. The ability to group kindred facts together, so 
that the result shall be practical knowledge, comes from 
proper experience in distinguishing similar forms, quali- 
ties, conditions, and relations in several objects. The an- 
imal world supplies the young with abundance of objects 
and conditions for gaining ability to learn the relations 
existing between facts, and to group and classify them. 
This field is one of great importance to the teacher, and - 
of lasting value to the pupil ; but, unfortunately, its prac- 
tical utility as an educational means is too little under- 
stood. The following classifications are designed to aid in 
bringing this subject, in its relation to animals, within the 
reach of ever}^ teacher. 

It often happens that a teacher wishes to know in what 
branch, class, order, family, or group of animals a given 
one belongs, when the works on natural history necessary 
to give the desired information are not within reach. At 
such times the following classified lists of animals, giving 
the prominent characteristics of each branch, class, order, 
group, faniily, etc., wnll be found exceedingly helpful to 
teachers (who are not expected to be as well informed 
on these matters as a professor of natural history). The 
teacher will be able, by an intelligent examination of these 
lists, to avoid many mistakes in giving lessons on animals; 
and the pupils will be saved from false impressions in re- 
lation to them. But let it be distinctly understood, how- 
ever, that this classification of animals is given here cspe- 



230 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 



cially/b;' the personal tise of teachers, ?i\\^ not as lessons 
for young pnpils to learn, althongli the facts contained 
herein may be used in their appropriate connection in 
lessons about animals."^ 

Animals are divided into branches. The branches are 
divided into classes. The classes are divided into or- 
ders. The orders are divided into families. The fami- 
lies are divided into genera. The genera are divided into 
species. A species is composed of individuals that are 
essentially alike. 

BRANCHES. 

Animals may be divided into Jive branches : 

{Animals that have a backbone, or an in- 
ternal bony framework, as man, horse, cat, 
birds, snake, alligator, frog, fish. 
[ Animals the bodies of which are com- 
I posed of segments or rings, placed one be- 
ll. Articulata . •{ hind tlie other in a symmetrical, jointed 
I form, as ants, files, spiders, grasshojypers, 
I lobsters, centipedes, bugs. 

{Animals that have soft, sack-like bodies, 
without joints or bones, as snails, slugs, 
oysters, cuttle-fish, squid. 

Animals that have parts of their bodies 
arranged around, or radiating from a cen- 
tre, as starfish, coral, jellyfish, sea-urchins, 
sea-slugs, sea-lily, sea-fan. 

Animals whose bodies consist mainly of 

gelatinous matter, without muscles, nerves, 

■{ or digestive organs, yet take and assimilate 

food, grow and muhipl3\ They belong to the 

lowest verge of animals, as sponges, infusoria. 



IV. Radiata 



V. Pkotozoa 



* For further facts about fomilies and individual animals, and for addi- 
tional information as to the manner of givinj; lessons on this subject, teach- 
ers arc referred to i\\e, Manual for Fraxjfs Natural Hhtonj Hcricx, published 
by L. Prans & Co., Boston, Mass. ; also to Comparative Zoology, by James 
Orton, published by Harper & Brothers. 



CLASSIFICATION OF AXIMALS. 



231 



I. Mammalia 



11. AvES (Birds). 



CLASSES— VERTEBRATES. 

The branch I. Vertebrata is divided into Jive classes, as fol- 
lows : 

Animals that have breathing organs 

in the form of lungs ; blood, warm ; 

heart, four cavities ; young produced 

^ alive, and nursed by the mother ; skin 

usually has hair, either on a part or the 

whole of the body, as man, monkey, bat, 

quadrupeds, ivhale, sea-lion, dugong. 

( Animals that have breathing organs 

I in the form of lungs, but connected 

■i with other air receptacles ; blood, warm ; 

heart, four cavities ; young hatched from 

eggs ; skin covered with feathers. 

Animals with breathing organs in the 
form of lungs; never breathe by gills; 
blood, cold; heart, usually three cavities; 
young usually produced from eggs; skin 
covered with scales or plates, as alli- 
^ gator, turtle, lizard, snake. 

Animals with breathing organs, in the 
young, in the form of gills only, but in 
the full-formed animal in the form of 
lungs alone, or of lungs and gills; blood, 
cold ; heart, in young, two cavities ; in 
adult, three cavities ; young produced 
from eggs ; skin usually naked and 
smooth, as frog, toad, tadpole, salainan- 
. der, newt, siredon. 

Animals that have breathing organs 
in the form of gills ; blood, cold ; heart, 
V. Pisces (Fishes) . ■{ usually two cavities ; young produced 
I from eggs ; body generally covered with 
I scales, sometimes naked, as with eels. 



III. Reptilia < 



IV. Amphibia < 



232 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



I. Insecta 



II. Myriapoda 



CLASSES— ARTICULATES. 

The branch II. Articulata is divided into the following 
classes : 

Animals whose bodies are divided into 
three parts — head, middle-body or thorax, 
hind-body or abdomen ; have six legs attach- 
ed to the thorax ; usually have two or four 
wings ; breathe through a row of small open- 
<| ings on each side of the body ; blood, color- 
less ; hatch from eggs, usually to a larva state, 
in -which growth takes place, then changes 
to the adult state, or full-formed insect, after 
which they do not grow, as Jiies, bees, moths, 

^ butterflies,locusts, dragon-fly, musquito, beetle. 
Animals -with many feet, whose bodies 
are divided into segments so similar that 
tlie thorax and abdomen are not easily dis- 
tinguished; they are worm-like in general ap- 
pearance ; breathe through air tubes in sides 

, of body, as earivig, centijyede, thousand-legs. 
Animals whose bodies are divided into 
two parts — head-body, and abdomen ; have 
four pairs of legs ; six or eight eyes ; no 
wings ; breathe through little tubes from 
their sides connected with air sacks in the 
body; hatch from eggs; change or shed 
skin six times as they grow to maturity, 

. as spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites. 

Animals whose bodies are covered •with 
a cmst or shell; having jointed legs; 
breathe by gills ; blood colorless ; usually 
live in water ; hatch from eggs ; shed their 
shells as they grow ; have power of repairing 
themselves (if a leg be lost, a new one grows 
in its place), as lobsters, crawflsh, shrimp, 

^ sandfleas, barnacles. 



III. Abachnida . < 



IV. Crustacea 



CLASSIFICATIOxN OF ANIMALS. 



233 



V- Annellida * 



Animals whose bodies are com- 
posed of a succession of rings, 
worm - like, without legs or wiiio's ; 
each ring usually contains a breath- 
ing and circulatory apparatus ; some 
breathe by the skin, as earth-tvorms 
and leeches ; some breathe by tuft- 
like gills, as sea- worms. This class 
includes all real worms, earth-worm, 
tape-worm, trichina, hair-worm, leech, 
wheel-animalcu le. 



I. Cephalopoda 



IT. Gasteropoda 



CLASSES— MOLLUSKS. 

The branch III. Mollusc A is divided into the followinr/ classes: 

Soft-bodied animals with a head, to 
wliich are attached eight or more arm- 
like appendages ; have two prominent 
eyes ; two stout, horny jaws ; rasping 
tongue ; body naked, or protected by 
a shell, as cuttle-fish, octojms, argo- 

^ nauts, squids. 

Soft- bodied animals, unsymmetri- 
cal in form ; organs not in pairs ; move 
by one foot ; usually breathe by gills 
[land - snails and slugs breathe by 
lung]; two eyes on long, horn -like 
feelers ; young hatched from eggs, as 
slugs, snails, whelk, Hmj)et, sea - slug, 

^ coivrij, cone-shell, j)criwinli-le. 

Soft-bodied animals without heads; 

breathe by four plate-like gills ; shell 

■^ equivalved ; hinge of shell on the 

back of the animal, as oyster, clam, 

^ mussel, cockle, razor-shell, scalloj). 



III. Lamellibranchita 



234 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



r 



IV. Brachiopoda . . . ^ 



V. TUNICATA 
YI. POLYZOA 



Soft - bodied animals, -with two long 
arms extending from the sides of the 
moutli, by means of which they cause 
a current of water, and thus secure their 
food ; without gills ; all marine animals. 

Soft -bodied animals, without head, 
feet, arras, or shell — found in seas. 

Minute animals, living in clusters, 
sometimes in a plant -like form; are 
both marine and fresh-water animals. 



I. IIOLOTIIUROIDKA 



II. ECHINOIDEA 



CLASSES— RADIATES. 
The branch IV. Radiata is divided into classes, asfoUoics: 

Worm-like sea-slugs, with soft, elon- 
gated body, tough, contractile skin, with 
feathery-like arms around the mouth. 

A globular animal, encased in a thin 
shell covered with spines, that lives 
near the shore, in rocky holes or under 
sea-weed, as sea-urchin or echinus. 

An animal with a leathery skeleton, 
covered with very small plates of shell- 
like substance, having five or more arms 
radiating from it, as star-fishes. The 
red spots at the end of the arms are 
supposed to bo eyes. They feed on 
oysters. Cold fresh water kills them. 

Animals fixed to the sea-bottom, re- 
sembling somewhat in form the bud and 
stem of a water-lily, as crinoid or sea- 
I Ul'j. 

^ Mai-ine animals, as sea-anemone, coral 
[ polyps, and corals of various kinds. 

Animals with soft, gelatinous, semi- 
transparent bodies, frequently of beauti- 
ful colors of claret or pink, us, jelhj-fish, 
^ medusa, Fortuguese-man-of-war, hydra. 



III. ASTKROIDEA 



IV. Crinoidea < 



V. Antiiozoa 



VI. IIvdrozoa < 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 



235 



CLASSES— LOWEST ANIMALS. 



The branch V. Protozoa is divided into classes, as foUoics : 

The sponge is a compound animal, com- 
posed of an exceedingly soft, filmy sub- 

^ stance, covering a net-work of horny fibres, 
which this substance secretes. Sponges 

^ increase by sperm-cells. 

A group of exceedingly minute particles, 
living in stagnant water. They multiply 
very rapidly. 

C These animals have root -like filaments 

1 extending from the main mass of the body. 

J Thoy are exceedingly minute, yet secrete 
calcareous or siliceous shells. These enter 
largely into the formation of chalk cliffs 

, sand, etc. 

r These are the lowest and simplest forms 
of living animal substance. They are ex- 
ceedingly minute, and are found in the 
earth-worm and cockroach. 



I. Spongida 



11. Infusoria 



III. Rhizopoda 



IV. Gregarinida 



236 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



ORDERS OF ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS — ORDERS OF. 

The class I. Mammalia is divided into orders, as follows : 

I. BiMANA. — T'wro-handed, as man. 

II. QuADRUMANA. — Four - handed, as monkeys, apes, gorilla, 
chimpanzee, orang-outang, lemurs, baboon. 

III. Carnivora. — Flesh eaters, as cats, lion, leopard, 2Janther, 

dogs, tvolf, fox, hyena, bear, wolverine, weasel, skunk, bad- 
ger, otter, seal, sea-lion, walrus, 

IV. Ungul ATA. — Hoofed quadrupeds, as horse, zebra, cow, sheep, 

goat, buffalo, antelope, gazelle, deer, moose, caribou, hog, 
peccary, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elejyhant, tajnr, camel, 
llama, giraffe. 
V. Cheiroptera. — Hand-winged, as bats. 
VI. Tnsectivora. — Insect eaters, as moles, hedgehogs, shretos. 
VII. Rodentia. — Gnawing animals, as rats, mice, squirrels, 
gophers, beavers, guinea-pigs, porcupines, tuoodchucks, prai- 
rie-dogs. 
VIII. Edentata. — "Without enamelled teeth: some have no kind 
of teeth, as ant-eater, sloth, armadillo. 
IX. Marsupials. — Pouched animals, as kangaroo, ojjossum, 

wombat. 
X. SlRENiA. — Fish-like mammal: feed on herbs; live in great 
rivers and warm parts of oceans near shores, as manatee, 
or sea-coiv, dugong, stellers. 
XI. Cetacea. — "Whales: fish-Hke mammals that live in the 
ocean ; feed on minute animals of the sea, as whale, dol- 
p)hin, 2)or2)oise, narwhal. 

Fish-like mammals Ijreatlie by means of lungs; they are obliged 
to come up to the surface of the water to take air. Their hroad,Jiat 
tails are horizontal to the icuter ; this position gives them greater pow- 
er for rising to the surface. 

Truejishes breathe under water by means of gills. Their tail's are 
perpendicular to the water, and are the means by which they propel 
themselves and direct their course in the water. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 237 



BIRDS.* 

A bird may be defined as aii air-hreathing, egg-layinrj^ 
warm -Mooded^ feathered vertehrate ; with two legs for 
perching, walking, or swimming, and two wings for fly- 
ing. Birds may be divided into three great groups, in ac- 
cordance with their modes of life. 

Aerial Birds are those which halitualhj live od)ove the 
earth, in the air, or on trees, embracing those com- 
monly known as birds of prey, percliers, climb- 
ers, as eagle, hawh, thrush, sjxirrow, woodpecker, 
parrot. 

Terrestrial Birds are those Mdiich hahitually live on 
the ground, and commonly known as waders, 
scratchers, and runners, as heron, crane, hen, quail, 
ostrich. 

Aquatic Birds are those which hcdntiiaUy live on the 
■water, and are commonly called swimmers, as 
duck, swan, pelican, gull, loon, penguin. 

BIRDS— ORDERS OF. 

The class Aves (Birds) is divided into orders, as follows : 

L Passeres. — Perchers: birds that have feet with four toes 
adapted to perching, including the oscines — singing birds 
— as thrush, mocking-bird, hluchird, tvarbler, catbird, O'oss- 
bill, cedar -bird, starling, oriole, blackbird, lark, bobolink, 
robin, chickadee, luren, jay, croio ; also of the clamatores 
— birds that do not sing — as flycatcher, kingbird, barn- 
sivallow, sand-martin, j^ewee. 



* Tlic Clnssificatinn of Birds given here is essentially that of Elliot Coucs, 
Sauboiu Tt'uiu-v.aud Agassiz. 



238 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

11. PiCARi^E. — A miscellaneous assortment: a group of birds 
that differ from all other groups, yet do not possess many 
resemblances to each other, as kinr/Jisher, whippoorwill, 
niffht-haivk, chimney -swalloiv, humming-bird, cuckoo, 
woodpeckers. 

III. PsiTTAci. — Climbers: birds tliat have two toes in front 

and two turned back. These birds commonly use the 
bill in climbing, as the ^^arro/, macaw, cockatoo, paroquet, 
trogons, toucans, harbet. 

IV. Raptores. — Birds of prey, as eagles, hawks, falcons, kites, 

buzzards, owls, vultures, condor, turkeg-buzzard, secretary- 
bird. 
V. CoLUMB.E. — Pigeons, as doves, pigeons, etc. 

VI. Galling. — Scratcliers, as hens, turkeys, grouse, quails, 

prairie-chicken, peacocks, guinea-hen. 
VII. CuRSORES, or Brevipennes. — Short - -winged, ninning 

birds, as ostrich, emu, rhea, bustard, aptcryx. 
Vin. Grallatores. — Waders: generally have slender bodies, 
long, bare legs, long necks, pointed bills. This order in- 
cludes three groups : Shore birds, as plover, snipe, sand- 
piper, turnstone, stilt, woodcock, curlew, avocet, yellow-legs. 
Heron Group, as great blue -heron, bittern, night-heron, 
squawk, stork, ibis, sjjoonbill. Crane and RaU Group, 
as ivhooping-crane, sand-hill-crane, Carolina-rail, clapper- 
rail, marsh-hen, gallimde. 

IX. Lamellirostres. — Swimmers, -with teeth -like edges to 
their bills, as ducks, gecsc, swans, widgeon, teal, mergan- 
sers. 
X. Steganopodes. — Swimmers, whose feet have three full 
webs, as p)eHcans, cormorants, gannets, snake-birds, frig- 
ate, or man-of-war birds. 

XI. LoNGiPENNES. — Swimmers, w^ith very long wings, as gulls, 

albatross, petrel, tern. 
XII. Pygopodes. — Swimmers, w^ith legs placed far back on 
the body : they arc diving birds, as loon, grebe, p)cnguin, 
2)i'ffi)h auk. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 239 

REPTILES— ORDERS OF. 
The class Reptilia is divided into orders, as folloivs : 

I. CiiELONiA. — Turtles: animals whose bodies are protected 
by horn-like shells, as box-turtles, snapping-turtles, mud- 
turtles, terrapin, hawk-hill-turtle, u'ood-tortoise, sea-turtles. 
II. Crocodilia. — Large reptiles, whose bodies are covered 
with horny scales and bony plates, as alligators of Amer- 
ica, and crocodiles of Africa and Asia. 

III. Lacertia. — Lizards, as the f/reen lizard, striped lizard, igu- 

ana, gecko, chameleon, horned toad. 

IV. Opiiidia. — Snakes: scaly reptiles without feet, as black- 

snake, striped-snake, loater-snake, rattlesnake, copper-head^ 
moccasin, viper, boa-constrictor. 



INSECTS— ORDERS OF. 

The class Insecta is divided into orders, as folloivs : 

I. Hymenoptera. — Membrane - -wiiiged insects, with four 
wings, as bees, wasps, gall-Jlies, ichneumon-fiy, saw-fly, ants. 
n. Lepidoptera. — Scaly-winged insects, with four wings, as 
butterflies, moths. 

III. DiPTERA. — Tw^o-'w^inged insects, as house-fly, musqiiitoes, 

horse-fly, ivheat-fly, bot-fly, flesh-fly, fleas, sheep-ticks. 

IV. CoLEOPTERA. — Slieath--winged insects, with upper wings 

horny, under wings membranous, as common ground-bee- 
tle, tiger-beetle, carrion-beetle, S7iapping-bugs, j^otato-beetle, 
lady-bugs, long-horned-beetles, weevils. 
V. IIemiptera. — Not full - winged : two hind wings much 
smaller than front ones, as bugs, harvest-flies, seventeen- 
year-locusts, tree-hopper, 2)lant-lice, cochineal, chinch-bug, 
squash-bug, bed-bug, aphis. 
VI. Orthoptera. — Straight - winged insects: front or outer 
wings thick, as grasshopiicr, migratory locust, cricket. 



240 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

katydid^ ivhite-dimhing-cricket, mantis, walking-stick and 
walking-leaf, cockroach, earwig. 
VII. Neuroptera. — Nerve-wiuged insects, with four net-veined 
wings, as dragon-Jlies, May-fiics, stone-flies, ant-lion, cad- 
dis-fly, spring-tails. 



MAMMALS— FxVMILlES OF. 
FAMILIES OF FLESH -EATERS. 
The order III. Carnivora is divided into families, as folloios : 
I. Felid.*;. — Cat Family : round head; short ears; can see 
as well by night as by day ; teeth adapted to tearing 
flesh ; rough tongue ; sensitive whiskers ; strong, sharp, 
retractile nails; five toes on each forefoot; feet with 
soft pads ; skin loose ; covered with soft, fine hair, as 
cats, lynx,2xinther, lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, ocelot. 
II. MusTELiD^. — Weasel Family: long, slender body; short 
legs ; sharp claws ; head oval ; teeth long and sharp ; 
tongue smooth ; covered with thick, soft fur, as tveasel, 
marten, ferret, mink, ermine, polecat, otter, badger, wol- 
verine, skunk. 

III. Canid.'E. — Dog Family: long, pointed head; long cars; 

sharp teeth; smooth tongue, as dog, toolf fox, jackal. 

IV. IIyenid.e. — Hyena Family: fore legs longer than liind 

ones; four toes on each foot ; strong jaws; nocturnal in 
habits; they are scavengers, living on animals which they 
find dead ; inhabit Africa and Asia. 
V. Ursid.e. — Bear Family : are five-toed ; walk on the whole 
sole of the foot ; eat both animal and vegetable food, as 
hears, raccoons. 
VI. Viverrid.e. — Civet Family : have some resemblance to 

cats, also to raccoons, as civet-cats, genet. 
VII. Phocid.'E. — Seal Family, as common seals. 
\'1II. Otariid.e. — Eared-seal Family, as the fur-seal, or sea-bear, 
and sea-lion. 
IX. IvOSMARiD.E. — ^Valrlls Family, as tlie walrus. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 241 



FAMILIES OF HOOFED ANIMALS. 

The order lY. Ungulata is divided into two grouj^s — 
Ruminants — cud-chewers ; and Non-ruminants — hoofed 
animals that do not chew their food twrice. The ruminants 
are divided into three smaller groujis — hollow-homed, sol- 
id-homed, hornless. • The hoofed quadru^peds are divided 
into families, asfoUoivs : 

Families of Rcminaxts. 

I. BoviD^E. — Ox, Sheep, and Antelope Family : have cloven 
hoofs; heads long; no front teeth on upper jaw; hol- 
low horns, with a bony pith or core, and do not shed 
their horns; generally timid; get up on their hind feet 
first ; chew their food second time, while at rest ; are of 
great service to man, as coiv, bison, buffalo, sheejJ, goat, 
antelope, gazelle, horned-horse, or gnu. 
II. Cervid.*:. — Deer Family : have cloven hoofs ; long heads ; 
no front teeth on upper jaw ; solid, branching horns, 
which are shed each year ; very timid ; get up on hind 
feet first; chew their food second time, when at rest, as 
deer, moose, caribou, reindeer, elk ; musk-deer of Asia 
has no horns. 

III. G1RAFFID.E. — Giraffe Family: the tallest quadruped; fore 

leg's longer than hind ones; body short; neck very long; 
no front teeth on upper jaw; short, solid horns; do not 
shed them ; chew the cud ; has a prehensile tongue ; 
feeds on leaves of trees ; native of Africa ; the giraffe 
is the only animal of this family. 

IV. Camelid.e. — Camel Family: have broad, pad-like foet, with 

two hoof -covered toes; have front teeth on dipper jaw ; 
chew the cud; have no horns; native of Central and 
South-western Asia and South America, as Bactrian cam- 
el, Arabian camel, llama, guanaco, vicuna. 

J r 



242 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Non-Ruminants. 

V. Equid^. — Horse Family : liave solid hoofs ; do not chew 
food twice ; get up on their forefeet first, as the horse, 
zebra, ass. 

The five following families form a group of thick-skinned ani- 
mals ; hence are sometimes called pachyderms. They eat vegeta- 
ble food ; do not chew the cud ; the skin is nearly naked, or cov- 
ered with bristles; wallow in mud; most of them have tusks. 

VI. Elephantid.e. — Elephant Family, as elej^hants. 
VII. SuiD.«. — Swine Family, as ho[/s, 2)eccaries. 
VIII. HiPPOPOTAMiD^E. — Hippopotamus Family, as hippojJota- 
mus. 
IX. RHiNOCEROTin.E. — Rhinoccros Family, as rhinoceros. 
X. Tapirid.e. — Tapir Family, as tajnrs. 



FAMILIES OF GNAWERS. 

The order VIT. Rodentia is divided into families, as follows : 

I. MuRiD^. — Rat Family, as rats, mice, ivhite-footed field- 
mouse, short-tailed field-mouse or meadow-mouse, jumjiinff- 
mouse, common mouse, harvest-mouse, brown rat, mtiskrat, 
hamster, leming. 
II. Saccomyid^. — Pouched - gopher Family: have check 
pouches, as j^ouched-gophcr, kanguroo-rals. 

III. SciURiDyE. — Squirrel Family: generally liave bushy tails, 

as squirrels, chipmunk, gray-gopher, striped-gopher, tvood- 
chuck, marmot, jirairie-dog. 

IV. Castorid/e. — Beaver Family, as beavers. 

V. Hystricid.«. — Porcupine Family: animals covered with 

quill-like spines, as 2^orcitpines. 
VI. Dasyproctid.^. — Agouti Family, as agouties and 2}ncas of 

South America. 
VII. Cavid^. — Guinea-pig Family, which is not a pig at all, 
but a gnawing animal from South America. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 243 

VIII. IIydrociicerid.e. — Capybara Family, as the capyhara or 
loater-liog of South America. 
IX. Chinchillid.e. — Chinchilla Family, as the chincJulla of 

South America, vahicd for its soft fur ; jerehoa. 
X. Lepokid.e. — Hare Family, as hares, rabbits, etc. 

Families of G-nawers. — The order Eodentia may be 
known by their front teeth, which are four in number — 
two on each jaw. They are curved, and have chisel- 
shaped ends. The front is covered with a layer of very 
hard enamel, while the back is composed oi a softer ma- 
terial. The result is, the softer parts wear away, by gnaw- 
ing, faster tlian the thin fronts ; thus the teeth have sharp, 
cutting edges all the time. The teeth grow at the base 
as fast as they wear off, so that they keep even at the 
ends. These teeth are fitted for cutting very hard ma- 
terials. The food of these animals consists of grains, 
nuts, bark, fruit, roots, etc. They are all timid, and trust 
to concealment or flight for safety. More than one-half 
of all the mammals in the world belong to the Order of 
Rodents. 



BIRDS— FAMILIES OF. 

BIRDS OF PREY. 

The order Kaptoees is divided into three groups — 
Diurnal Birds of Prey, as eagles, haivTts ; Nocturnal 
Birds of Vxqj , as owls ; Vultures, This order is also 
divided into families, the memhers of lohich are noted for 
short, strong heaJcs, which end in a sharp-pointed hook, 
and for their stout legs, large, curved, and sharp claios. 

I. Falconid^. — Falcon Family : have the head and neck fully 
covered with feathers ; eyebrows pi-ojecting- ; eyes sunk- 
en and piercing; sight keen and very extended; flight 
soaring ; live in pairs ; feed on flesh of animals which 



244 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

they capture ; found in all parts of tbc world, as eagles, 
falcons, haivks, buzzards, kites, harriers, fish-haioks. 
11. Strigid^e. — Owl Family : have large, round heads ; short, 
hooked beaks, which are nearly hidden by feathers; 
large eyes, with widely opening pupils ; can see best 
during twilight, at which time they seek their food, of 
mice, reptiles, and small birds ; hearing very acute ; fly 
without making a noise ; legs and feet covered with 
feathers ; outer toe can be directed forward or backward, 
as barn-owl, great horned-owl, screech-owl, snowy-owl, bur- 
rowing*-oivl. 
III. VuLTURiD.E. — Vulture FamDy: have head and neck with- 
out feathers, usually naked, or sparsely covered with 
down ; eyes not sunken ; sight good ; sense of smell very 
strong; feed on bodies of animals found dead; live in 
warm countries; they arc scavengers among birds, as 
hyenas are among quadrupeds. The Old World vult- 
ures are the Arabian vulture, Angola vulture, bearded 
vulture. The last has feathers on its head, and captures 
its own prey ; it is more like an eagle. 
IV. Cathartid^. — American Vultures, as the condor of the 

Andes, California vulture, turkey-buzzard, carrion-crow. 
V. GypoGERANiD^E. — The Secretary-bird, or serpent-eater of 
South Africa. 



FAMILIES OF SCRATCHERS. 

The order Gallinae, coiiinionly known as scratchers, 
comprises live families. The members have heavy body; 
small head ; short wings, not adapted to long flight ; toes 
nearly straight, with short, blunt nails, suitable for scratch- 
ing; three front toes longest; beaks short and stout; 
build nests on the ground ; usually select some elevated 
position for a roosting-place at night ; young are liatched 
with their eyes open, and are able to run about soon after 
leaving tlieir shell ; food consists chiefly of grain, seeds, 



CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 245 

and insects ; lay many eggs. This order is divided into 
families, as follows : 

I. Phasianid.e. — Pheasant Family, as pheasants, hens, 2^ca- 

cock, guinea-fowl. 
II. Meleagrid^. — Tiirkey Family, as tarkeijs. 

III. Tetraonid^. — Grouse Family, as ruffed - grouse or ^;ar- 

tridge, prairie-hen, quail, ptarmigan. 

IV. Cracid.e. — Curassow Family, as curassow, guan. 

V. CoLUiviBiDJi. — Pigeon Family, as ivild 2^iffcon, carrier-jngeon, 
dove. 



FAMILIES OF PERCHERS. 

The following families emhrace the iwincipal <jrouj)s 
of perching Mrds, into ■which the order Passeres is di- 
vided: 

I. TuRDiD.E. — Thrushes, as loood - thrush, hroivn - thrush, 

mocking-bird, catbird, robin. 
II. Saxicolid^e. , as stone-chats, bluebirds. 

III. CiNCLiD.E. — Dippers, as dipper, ivater-ouzel. 

IV. Sylviid.e. , as kinglet, gnatcatchcrs. 

V. Parid/e. — Chickadees, as chickadee, titmouse. 

VI. SiTTiDvE. — Nuthatches, as nuthatches. 
VII. Certhiid^. — Creepers, as brown-creeper. 
VIII. Troglodytid/E. — "Wrens, as house-wren, Carolina ivrcn. 
IX. Alaudid.e. — Larks, as skylark and starling of Europe, 
horned-lark of United States. 
X. MontacillidjE. — "Wagtails, as yellow wagtail, titlark, 

broion lark, Missouri shjlark, pipit. 
XI. Sylvicglid.e. — American Warblers, as worm -eating 
umrbler, blue -winged yellow ivarbler, black -throated 
green warbler, yellow -breasted chat, hemlock warbler, 
ivater-thrush, Canadian flycatcher, redstart. 
XII. Tanagrid^. — Tanagers, as scarlet tanager, summer red- 
bird. 



216 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



XIII. HiRUNDiNiD^. — Swallows, as bam-swallotv, cliff or eave 

swalloiv, bank-sivallow or sand-martin. 

XIV. Ampelid.e. — Waxwings, as Carolina waxioing, cedar- 

bird ; feed on berries and soft fruit. 
XV. ViREONiD^. — Vireos, as red-eyed vireo, loarbling vireo. 
XVI. LaniidvE. — Shrikes, as butcher-bird. 

XVII. Fringillid.«. — Finches, as grosbeak, bullfinch, crossbill, 
yellow -bird, snow -bunting, snow-bird, song-sjMrrow, 
chip-bird or chi2:>2nng-S2}arrow, field-sparroxv, English 
sparrow, rose -breasted grosbeak, indigo -bird, cardinal 
red-bird, canary-bird. 
XVIII. IcTERiD^E. — American Starlings, as bobolink, or reed-bird, 
or rice-bird (tlic same bird has these different names), 
coio-bird, yelloio -headed blackbird, red-winged blackbird, 
field-lark, Baltimore oriole or hang-nest, purple grackle. 
XIX. CoRviD.«. — Crows, jays, etc., as raven, crow, magpie, blue- 

XX. Tyrannid^. — Flycatchers, as kingbird, crested-fiy catch- 
er, peivee or pha^be, 2Vood-pewee, green-crested flycatcher, 
least flycatcher. 



PLANTS. 247 



PLANTS. 

Plants are living things ; thej feed, grow, and perform 
various kinds of work. Their forms, colors, uses, habits, 
and other characteristics place them among objects espe- 
cially adapted to the cultivation of careful observation. 
Indeed, the study of plants may be called the science of 
observation. 

Each part of the plant performs its own peculiar part 
of the work. The root liolds it to the ground, and absorbs 
nourishment from the soil. The leaves absorb light and 
air, and aid in changing the fluids and nourishment that 
are taken up by the roots into materials for building up 
the plant. The hucls hold and protect the blossoms until 
the time of their flowering. The Uossom produces the 
fruit. The harli, of exogens protects the tender new wood 
which is formed each year outside of the old wood. 

How Plants Take Food. — The food of plants is al- 
ways liquid and gaseous, never solid. The roots absorb 
water, in which mineral matters, such as nitrogen, phos- 
phorus, sulphur, potash, and iron are dissolved ; and this 
fluid ascends through the stem, and branches to the cells 
of the leaves. The leaves absorb carbonic acid gas from 
the air, which also enters the leaf cells, where the sunlight 
causes chemical changes to take place, by which the car- 
bon is separated and retained by the jilant, and oxygen 
given back to the air. The carbon unites with the fluid 
in the cells, and forms starch in a liquid state. This sap 
is conveyed to all parts of the plant where growth takes 



248 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

place, and supplies the materials for the nonrisliment and 
growth of the plant, somewhat as the blood in animals 
supplies the nourishment for their growth. Thus we see 
that plants must have w\ater, air, and sunlight to enable 
them to take food and grow. [See pages 130, 131.] 

How Seeds Grow. — Place seeds of plants, as peas, 
beans, corn, wheat, oats, mustard, etc., in the earth, where 
they will have warmth, moisture, and air, and each will 
develop a root to absorb nourishment from the ground, 
and a stem to reach above the ground for light and air. 
The stem becomes the support of leaves, buds, and flowers. 

Buds form on trees m autumn, and remain dormant 
till spring; thej are covered with scales that protect them 
from wet and cold. The warmth of the sun in spring, 
together with air and moisture, causes the buds to expand 
into leaves and blossoms, the sap or juice to flow from 
the roots through the trunk, limbs, and leaves, and the 
process of growth to take place throughout the ti'ee or 
plant. 

Annual Plants are those which grow from seed, blos- 
som, and die each year, as C07ii, wheats oats, tiiiistard, 
leans, inommg-glory , etc. 

Biennial Plants. — Some plants grow during the first 
year after the seed is planted, live through the winter, 
blossom and produce seed the second year, then die. 
These are called hiennials. To this class belong the tur- 
nij), carrot, ljeet,jparsni^, radish, etc. 

Perennial Plants. — Some plants live on year after 
year, as trees, shruhs, and other plants wath w^oody stems, 
as rose-l)Ush, cjTape-mne,^]! ', also plants \\\i\\ soft stems 
that die to their roots each year, among which are those 
called herlis, as sweet -flag, iris, lily, peppermint, and 
grasses ; also the dahlia, peony, pinic, and other flowering 



PLANTS. 249 

plants. Shi'uhs seldom grow to a height twice that of a 
man. 

Habits of Plants. — Plants not only grow, blossom, 
and produce fruit, but many of them have very interest- 
ing habits, among which are those of cUnibing by creeping 
and by twining, sleeping and awaking, catching insects, 
etc. 

The English ivy, the poison ivy, and the trumpet-creep- 
er climb by creeping. They creep up the face of walls 
and the trunks of trees by fastening little flat rootlets, 
which the plant sends out along the stem against the 
supporting objects. 

The hop, some kinds of beans, morning-glory, honey- 
suckles, and other plants climb by twining spirally around 
some supporting object. But these do not all twine in 
the same direction. The hop and some JiuneysucMes 
twine around with the sun — from right toward the left. 
The hean, morning-glory, and nearly all the other twining 
plants turn around against the sun — from left toward the 
right. 

The pea, grape-vine, Virginia creeper, and passion-flow- 
er climb by tendrils. The clematis climbs by the foot- 
stalk of the leaf, which coils like a tendril. 

Sleeping and Waking. — Some plants have regular habits 
as to the time of closing and opening their blossoms and 
leaves. Tiie locust and wood-sorrel turn down their leaf- 
lets at night, and turn them up again in the morning. 
The honey-locust raises its leaves upright at night, and 
turns them down ao;ain in the morninor. 

The morning-glory opens its blossoms about two o'clock 
in the morning, and closes them about ten o'clock in the 
forenoon. The vegetable oyster opens at four o'clock in 
the morning, and closes about noon. Tlie four- o'clock 
opens about four o'clock p.m. The "evening primrose 

11* 



250 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

opens about six o'clock p.m. The Cereus grandiflora 
blooms about eight o'( 
lasts but a few Lours. 



blooms about eight o'clock in the evening, and the flower 



Plants have Family Relatives. — Some plants have 
a great many family relatives. The Rose Family is very 
large, and also a very important one. All of our delicious 
berries and fruits belong to this useful family. The onion, 
the garlic, and asparagus are family relatives of the lily- 
of-the-valley. The Plnh Family is a large one, but is 
chiefly noted for its pretty flowers. It does not supply 
us with food or medicine. 

Hints for Manner of G-iving Lessons on Plants. — 
Such facts as the foregoing, and many similar ones, may 
be so presented to children as to gratify their desire to 
know about these things which they see daily ; and les- 
sons on plants may be conducted in a manner to awaken 
in the pupils a deep interest for the study of plants, while 
they are acquiring excellent habits of careful observation 
that will be valuable to them in any position in life. 

Care should be taken that the flrst lessons do not be- 
come too formal and technical by attempting to follow 
the lessons in the text-book on botany ; also that they be 
sufiiciently general in their character to permit that prop- 
er range of observation which children can make under 
a guidance Avhicli allows the greatest freedom consistent 
with the accumulation of facts for association and subse- 
quent classiflcation. As the interest and knowledge of 
the pupils increase, and the facts learned become some- 
what numerous, more and more system may be introduced 
into the lessons. In the beginning of the lessons seek 
rather to' follow Nature than to lead her. Let the chil- 
dren see whole things first, and afterward lead them to 
notice parts of them and single facts. Gradually lead 
the pupils to notice as many facts as possible that are pe- 



PLANTS. 251 

culiar to any particular plant. Tell theni some facts, not 
easily discovered, to arouse their curiosity, but request 
them to look for themselves and verify that which you 
tell them, that it may be more vividly and firmly fixed 
in their minds. Point out, also, the way by which pupils 
can discover new facts for themselves. Let the teacliefs 
constant aim he, during all these lessons, to lead the pupils 
to stand face to face with nature, and learn to iise their 
own senses in gaining knowledge. 

Leaves. — For some lessons let cliildren collect leaves and com- 
pare their shapes, and learn names for their shapes. 

Roots. — For some lessons let the pupils notice the different 
shapes of roots, and learn their names. 

Shapes of Flowers. — For other lessons let them notice those 
flowers that I'eserable common objects, as hell - shaped, fxmnd- 
shaped, butter fly-shaped, etc. 

Family of Plants. — Teaching children to distinguish those 
traits of resemblance by which plants are grouped into famiUcs 
will supply many interesting lessons. Here good text-books on 
botany may be used to aid both teacher and pupils. 

During those lessons on plants in which the chief pur- 
pose is to awaken a desire to know more about nature, 
and to form habits of investigation as a means of devel- 
oping the mental powers of your pupils, and of leading 
them to accumulate practical knowledge by their own 
experiences, remember that you must not make these les- 
sons a formal study of botany. 



252 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



FACTS FOR TEACHERS. 
ABOUT PLANTS. 

Teachers need to have -vvithia easy access a variety of facts 
about each subject of instruction as a means of ready reference, 
and as an aid in the preparation of lessons for their pupils. With 
the view of meeting this need, in part, on the subject of Plants, 
the following statements and descriptions arc given. These are 
not to be used as lessons for the pupils to learn, but to suggest 
to teachers some of the important facts relating to plants which 
they may lead their pupils to observe. 

Lessons for systematic instruction upon any subject ought to 
commence with objects, belonging to that subject, which are al- 
ready familiar to children by common notice ; therefore leaves, 
flowers, and roots are among suitable subjects for early lessons 
upon plants. 

Furthermore, it should be borne in mind by the teacher that 
the habits of careful observation, comparison, and classification 
which the pupils acquire by proper attention to this subject is of 
at least as much value to them as all the facts which they may 
learn concerning the subject. Hence, in conducting the lessons 
on plants, the teacher should give more attention to the forma- 
tion of proper habits of learning than to the mere acquisition of 
facts by memory. 

SHAPES OF LEAVES. 

Needle-shaped. — [Acerose.l Long, slender leaves, of equal size 
througliout, usually growing in clusters, as the leaves of the Pine. 
Tlic White Pine \rA'sJive leaves in a cluster, each from three to four 
inches long. The Pitch Pine has three leaves in a cluster, each from 
four to five inches long. The Red Pine has two leaves in a cluster, 
each from five to six inches long. Some other varieties of Pino 
have the same number of leaves in a cluster as each of the above, 
but their leaves differ in size and length. 



PLANTS. 253 

SwoED-snAPED. — {Ensiform. Linear.'] Linear loaves arc very 
narrow, and several times louger than their width, witli parallel 
edges or margins, as the leaves of Orass. Ensiform leaves are also 
linear, but the form of the leaves resembles the English sword, or 
the cut-and-thrust sv»'ord, while the grass Z^f?/ resembles the rainer, a 
straight sword. The Lris, or Flag-leaf, is ensiform. 

Lance-shaped. — [Lanceolate.'] Leaf several times louger than its 
width, narrow, and gradually tapering to a slender point, as the 
Peach leaf and the Willow leaf. 

Arrow-shaped. — {Sagittate.] Long, narrow, and tapering to a 
point, with pointed lobes at the base, extending backward like an 
arrow-head, as the leaf of tiie Calla, Scratch-grass, and Arrow-liead. 

Spear-shaped. — [Hastate.] Leaves generally broader than the 
arrow-shaped, tapering more abruptly to a point, and having the 
pointed lobes at the base extending outward, as the leaves of com- 
mon Sorrel, Bind-iceed, Sage. 

Shield-shaped. — [Peltate.] A circular leaf, with the stem attach- 
ed near the centre of the lower surface, as iu the Nasturtium, Man- 
drake, White Water-lily. 

Ear-shaped. — [Aurindate.] This name pertains only to the lase 
of the leaf, and is applied to those leaves having small, rounded 
lobes, or ear-like projections on each side of the stem, like the lobes 
of the ears, as the base of the leaf of the Ear-leaf Magnolia. 

Egg-shaped. — [Ovate.] An ovate leaf has a broad, curved base 
and a narrower curved apex, with the entire form like that of a 
common egg, as a Hose leaf. 

Heart-shaped. — [ Cordate.] When an egg-shaped leaf has a notch 
at tlie base, or when the leaf has the shape in which a heart is usual- 
ly represented, it is called heart-shaped, as the leaf of the Morning- 
glory and the Lilac. 

Kidney-shaped. — [Reniform.] A kidney-shaped leaf is broader 
than it is long; it is a short, rounded leaf, having a base somewhat 
like the heart-shaped leaf, but with the base lobes more distant from 
the stem than in the latter, as the Wild Ginger leaf. 

Hand-shaped. — [Palmate.] A leaf that is divided into five lo1)es, 
or 2)arts, without these parts being separated to the base or stem, as 
the Sweet-gum leaf and some Maple leaves. 

Leaves that are divided into separate parts, or fingers, are' called 
Digitate or Fingered leaves, as the Virginia Creeper, the Buckeye. 



254 MANUAL 'of OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Wedge-shaped. — [Cvneate.] A leaf that is broad at the top, aud 
tapers with nearly straight edges to the stem, like a wedge, as the 
leaf of the CocTcspur-thorn. 

Oblong Leaf. — A leaf that is at least two and a half or three 
times as long as it is broad, and of nearly the same breadth through- 
out its length ; it is narrowly elliptical in shape, as the Rose-hay, 
Primrose. 

Oval Leaf. — A leaf that is broadly elliptical in form; usually the 
ends are more sharply rounded tlian in the oNong leaf, with the 
breadth not quite half as great as the length. When the breadth 
is twice the length, or a little more, with the outline of an ellipse, 
the shape is called elliptical. The oval leaf is represented in the 
Beaver-tree, or small Magnolia. 

Orbicular Leaf. — [ Circular, Rotund.'] A leaf that has a resem- 
blance to a circular shape, with the stem attached nearer the base 
than in the 2idtate leaf, as Round-leaved Sundew, Marsh-marigold. 

FEATHER-snAPED. — [^Pinnate.'] A compound leaf in which the 
leaflets arc arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk, as the Locust, 
Ash. Sometimes the leaflets are themselves divided and arranged 
on the sides of branches of the main leaf- stalk, as in the Iloney- 
locust. Such leaves are said to be feathered, or donhly -pinnate, or 
twice-pinnate, or hi-pinnate. 

KouND-LOBED, Sharp-lobed. — {Lolate.] When the sides of a 
leaf are cut into an equal number of parts, with the incisions extend- 
ing from one-fourth to one-half of tlie distance from the edge to the 
mid-vein, it is said to be lobed. If these parts or lobes are rounded, 
the leaf is said to be round-hied, as in the White Oal: If the lobes 
are sharp or pointed, the leaf is said to be sharp-lobed, as in the Red 
Oah. 

Perforated Leaf. — [Perfoliate.'] When the stem grows through 
the leaf near one end, it is called a perfoliate leaf, or perforated leaf, 
as the Bellwort and the Honeysuckle. 

Lyre-shaped. — \Lyrate.] A leaf with the lower part lobed and 
the upper part somewhat circular, or broad and rounded, as the 
Radish leaf. Turnip leaf. 

Deeply-cut, w Gashed Leaf. — {Laciniate?^ A leaf that ajipears 
as if torn, or cut in deep and irregular gashes, having the parts long 
and narrow, as MonluS-head. 

Foot-shaped. — [Pedate.] A leaf with several deep clefts sepa- 
rating .it into long, narrow parts, resembling the toes of a bird's foot, 
as the Passion-flower, Christmas-rose. 



TLANTS. 255 

■"Whorled Leaves. — [ Verticillate.] Three or more leaves growiug 
around the stem of a plant, in a circle, as in the Red-lily, 2'rumpet- 
iceed. 

Bundled, or Clustered Leaves. — [Fascicled.] A bunch of many 
short, needle-shaped leaves growing in a cluster, on a short, bud-like 
branch, as the leaves of the Larch, Tamaraclc. 



SHAPES OF FLOWERS. 

FuiSTNEL- SHAPED. — [Infumlibuliform.'] A tubular flower whicli 
gradually enlarges from its base, and rapidly sjDreads out at the up- 
per part into a wide, circular border. So called from its resem- 
blance to a common funnel. Examples : Morning-glory, Stravionium, 
Tobacco. 

TRUMPET-snAPED, or Tubular. — A. flower having a long, narrow 
tube, widening at the end, and resembling a trumpet, or horn. Ex- 
amples : Trumpet-honeysuclde, Fuchsias. 

Bell-shaped. — [Camjmmdate.'] A flower having a shape like a 
common bell. Examples : Harebell, Bell-flower, Canterbury-bell. 

Salver-shaped. — [Hypocrateriform.'] A tubular flower, the uj^per 
end of which spreads out abruptly into a flat border, like an ancient 
tray, or salver. Examples : Phlox, Heliotrope, Lilac. 

Lip-shaped. — {Labiate.] A flower with a tubular base, having 
the upper part open so as to resemble lips, or a mouth. Examples : 
Sage, Hyssop, Skull-cap. 

Cross-shaped. — [Cncciform.] A flower with four s^jreadiug pet- 
als standing at right angles, so as to resemble a Maltese cross. Ex- 
amples : Mustard, Wallflower, Water-cress. 

Wheel-shaped. — [liotate.] Sometimes called Star-shap)ed. A 
flower without a tube, or with a very short one, which seems to 
spread out into five distinct divisions, somewhat like a wheel with 
five spokes. Examples : Potato-blossom, Tomato, Mullein, Bitter-sweet. 

Butterfly-shaped. — [Papilionaceous.] A flower consisting of 
five dissimilar petals, so arranged as to resemble a butterfly. The 
large petal at the top is called the " banner ;" the two side petals 
are called " wings ;" and tlie two central, lower petals, whicli aj)pear 
to be joined, are called the "keel," from the resemblance to the 
prow of an ancient boat. Examples: Sweet -pea, Locust, Wistaria, 
Bean, Clover. 



256 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Helmet-shaped. — [Galeated.] A flower having its upper part in 
the form of a hood, or helmet. Example : Moiik' s-hood. 

Stuai'-siiaped. — \_Ligulnte.'] This form is seen in plants with 
compound flowers, as China -aster, Daisy, Coreopsis, Suniioioer, etc. 
Each strap-shaped Jfoicer, vfhich appears so much like a single flat 
petal of an ordinary flower, is a distinct floicer. Its edges are rolled 
together at tlie base, so as to form a short, tubular jiortion. Great 
numbers of these single flowers grow together, forming what is com- 
monly called compound flowers. 

Pink-shaped. — [Ca7'7/02)hiIh.ceous.] A flower with five broad pet- 
als, each witli a long claw extending down into a tubular cup, or 
calyx. Examples : PinJc, Bouncing-bet. 

Lily-shaped. — [Lilijiceous.] A flower, somewhat bell-shaped, with 
six petals of uniform size and color, and six stamens. The petals 
turn back at the mouth of the flower, so as to separate widely at 
their outer ends. Examples : Tiger-lily, White-lily, Japan-lily. 



SHAPES OF ROOTS. 

CoNic.\L Root. — A solid root which tapers regularly from the 
upper end to its lower extremity, as the Carrot, Parsnij), and some 
Beets. 

Spindle-shaped Root. — [Fusifo7'm.] A solid root which increases 
in size from the top toward the centre, and tapers regularly from 
the centre to the lower extremity. It tapers from near the middle 
toward each end, as the Radish, Oinseng, and some Beets. 

Turnip-shaped. — [Napiform.} A short, solid root which abrupt- 
ly swells out at its upper part, and abruptly diminishes in size, so 
that the diameter of its body is equal to or greater than its length ; 
and it has a small tapering root extending from its bottom, as the 
common Turnip and some Radishes. 

Tuberous Roots. — Several fleshy roots growing in a buncli, each 
usually having a few fibres, as the roots of the Dahlia, Orchis, Peony, 
Sweet-piotato. 

Tubers. — In some plants the ends of the root-like branches of the 
stems which grow underground become greatly enlarged and thick- 
ened into flesliy knobs, each of which contains several buds, or eyes; 
these knobs are called tubers, as in the common Potato and Articholce. 



PLANTS. 257 

Btjlb. — A fleshy l)ud ccrowing in tlie ground, usually of the shape 
of a flattened spheroid, having flbrous roots attached at the bottom. 
Bulbs are usually formed of thick, tleshy scales, or layers, as the 
Onion, Lily. 

CoRM. — A solid lulb^ or fleshy stem, growing underground, having 
a sliape somewhat like a flattened spheroid, as the solid bulbs, or 
corms, of the Crocus, Gladiolus, Indian-turnip. 

Branching Roots. — Woody roots with numerous branches, re- 
sembling the branches of a tree, as the roots of trees, and also of 
shrubs. 

Fibrous Roots. — A cluster of slender, thread-like roots, nearly 
uniform in size, growing directly from the base of the plant stem, as 
Grass Roots, Grain Boots, and the roots of many of the annual plants. 

Btindled Roots. — {Fascicled.} Roots that grow in a cluster, 
somewhat like fibrous roots, but which are much larger and more 
fleshy, as Crowfoot, Buttercup. 

Runner, or Creeper. — A prostrate stem that creeps along the 
surface of the ground, and sends roots downward at each joint, and 
puts forth stems and leaves above them, thus forming new plants, 
as the Straicherry-pl(t?it. 

Root Stock. — [Bhizoina.] A fleshy, horizontal stem, or branch, 
growing underground, with joints and branches, as Siceet-Jlug, Ginger, 
Solomon' s-seal. Blood-root. 

Note. — For further information relative to names that may be applied to 
modified forms of tlic sliapes of Icavex, Jloirers, and roots described in the pre- 
ceding pages, see a good text-boolc on Botany. For colored illustrations 
of these, see Prang^s Natural Iliatorg Scries, representing the three groups 
here described. 



258 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



FAMILIES OF PLANTS. 

The examination and comparison of plants belonging to the 
same family, and possessing many similar characteristics, furnish 
excellent means for training children to acquire habits of careful 
observation and discrimination, and the ability to distinguish 
those peculiarities which indicate relationship in the vegetable 
world. To accomplish this important attainment the pupils must 
themselves handle, examine, and compare the plants and flowers 
until they become familiar with the leading characteristics of the 
family. Suitable pictures will aid the pupils in this work, but 
the plants and their flowers must become familiar by actual ex- 
amination before a real knowledge of them can be gained. 

The following descriptions are given here to assist the teacher 
in directing the attention of pupils to those characteristics of 
plants by which family relations may be determined. To give 
a complete list of the members of the following families has not 
been attempted here. Such members of each family have been 
selected as best represent leading traits of the family. For a de- 
scription of other members of these and of different families, the 
reader is referred to good text-books on botany. 

The teacher will please bear in mind that these descriptions 
are not to be taught the pupils as lessons to be recited, yet they 
may be used to assist in discovering the family traits. 



The Lily Family. — [LiUacece.] It is generally known by its 
regular, symmetrical, and richly colored flowers, with su petah, sim- 
ilarly colored, and six stamens and one 2nstil. The flower is never 
enclosed in a sheath, except in the onion group. The stamens are 
usually inserted in or near the base of the petals. 

The seed-vessel, or ovary, is three-celled, with the seeds packed 
one upon another. The roots of lilies, which are usually bulbous 
(sometimes tuberous, or fibrous), live from year to year. The leaves 
arc iJarallel-veiued, and generally narrow. 



PLANTS. 259 

The members of this fomily are chiefly natives of temperate cli- 
mates. Some of them are used for food, as the onion, garlic, aud as- 
2Mragus, and others for medicine. A medicinal substance obtained 
from the bulb of a lily found in the south of Europe is known as 
squills. There are 1200 species of lilies. 

Superb Lily, <??• Turk's Cap. — [Liliiwi sujierliim.'] Grows in the 
IVIiddle and Western States, in jirairies and meadows, also gultivated 
in gardens. Flowers of a bright orange color, with purple sjiots. 

White Lilt. — [Lilliim candidum.] Native of Persia ; cultivated 
here in gardens. Has a thick stem, four feet high, supporting a clus- 
ter of large, snow-white, bell-shaped flowers. 

Yellow Lily. — [Lilium Canadense.'] Native of Canada and 
United States. Stem from two to four feet high, often containing 
seven or more nodding flowers of a yellow or orange color, spotted 
with purple inside. 

Tiger Lily. — [Lilium tigrimim.] Native of China ; cultivated in 
gardens. Stem four or five feet high, containing several orange-red 
flowers, thickly spotted with black. 

Japan Lily. — [Lilium Japonicum.'] From Jajian ; cultivated here. 
Stem two feet high, usually bearing a single, large, white, nodding 
flower. The petals are compressed into a narrow tube at the base, 
but widely sejjarated at the outer ends. 

Philadelphia Lily. — [Lilium Pliiladdpliicum.'] Common in tlie 
Northern States. Flowers bell-shaped ; petals narrow, and separated 
down to the base, of reddish orange color, and sj)otted inside with 
dark puqjle. 

Tulip. — [Tulipa Gesncrinna.'] Native of Persia; cultivated here. 
Stem about one foot high ; flower erect, and bell-shaped, with short 
stamens. Colors variegated. There are several hundred varieties. 

Crown Imperial. — [Fritillaria imperialist^ Native of Persia; 
cultivated. Stem thick, about three feet high, bearing at the top a 
cluster of large red, or yellow, nodding flowers, beneath a crown of 
narrow, green leaves. 

Lily-of-the-y ALLEY. — [ Convallaria mnjalis.] Native of Europe ; 
also of mountains from Virginia to Georgia. Usually has two leaves 
enclosing a stem about six inches long, from the upper side of whicli 
hang little white bells, six parted ou the edge. These flowers arc 
very fragrant. 



260 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Hyacinth. — [EyacintJms orientalis.] Native of Asia Minor; com- 
mon, as early house i)lants. Flower stems are twice as long as tlie 
leaves, and bear a dense cluster of small flowers, fragrant, and of 
various colors. 

Star of BETin.EnEjr. — [ Orn Wiogalum ninlellatum.] From Europe ; 
also growing wild in the United States. Leaves grass-shaped; flow- 
er-stalk aJ)out one foot high, and branching. Flowers in a group, 
white within, and marked with a stripe of green on the outside of 
the petals. 

Water-lily Family. Water-lily. — [ISfpnphcea odorata.] 
It will be readily observed that this flower has not the form of a 
true lily. Indeed, it does not even belong to the family, but to the 
"Water-lily Family, or J^ri/mpliceacece. It is a water-plant, growing in 
lakes and ponds, with the leaves and flowers floating on the surface 
of the water. 

The flowers of the water-lily are commonly white, sometimes pink- 
ish, or yellowish. The petals are numerous, and grow in regular 
rows. The stems, which are very long, grow^ from a root-stock in- 
stead of a bulb. This and the following species were placed in this 
group to show the pupils that the common pond-lily, though called 
a " lily," ditfers widely from the true lilies ; and to impress upon 
them the fact that it belongs to a widely diflereut family. 

Victoria Regia. — This great water-lily of South America belongs 
to the same family as our pond-lily. Its leaves grow from four to 
six feet in diameter. The flowers are sometimes one foot in diameter. 

The Nile Lotus also belongs to the same family.* 

The Pink Family. — The pink plant has narrow, bluish-green 
leaves, attached to the stem ojjposite to each other. The stem is 
slender and branching, and has swollen joints. The flower-cup, or 
calyx, is cylindrical, and divided into five parts at the to2), and lias 
two or more pairs of opposite bracts, or short, pointed leaves at the 
base. The flower has live broad petals with notched edges. Each 
petal has a long, slender claw extending down into the calyx. 

The pink has usually ten stamens and two pistils, which are 
curved outward. 

* For a complete list of the members of tlie Lily Fauiily, and of otlicr 
ftimilies, also for descriptions of tliem, see Grai/s School and Fidd Book of 
Botany, or TFood's Class-look of Botany. 



PLANTS. 2G1 

The. seed-vessel is one-celled, contaiuing many seeds. 
The Pink Family [CaryopJujllacm] lias many beautiful members, 
but none of them are useful either as food or medicine. 

China Pink. — {Diantlms Chinensis.] The flower has large petals, 
toothed, and of various colors. Native of China ; common here in 
gardens. 

Sweet-william, or Bunch Pink. — [^Diantlius harhatus.] Tlie 
flowers grow in a flat-topped cluster. They are red, or whitish, and 
sometimes variegated. 

Carnation, ar Clove-plnk. — [Dianthus ccu^yophyllus.'] This spe- 
cies is supposed to be tlie parent of all the beautiful varieties of car- 
nation pinks. Tlieir flowers are white, red, crimson, scarlet, purple, 
yellow, and variegated. Flowers are solitary. 

IMuLLEiN Pink. — [Lychnis coronaria.] Native of Euroj^e; culti- 
vated here. The plant is covered with a cottony substance, which 
the ancients used for lamp-wicks. It has ten stamens and five pis- 
tils. Flowers crimson, or purple. It has some resemblance to Corn- 
cocTcle, a plant found in wheat-fields. 

Ragged Robin. — [Lychnis Flos - cuczdi.] Sometimes called the 
" Cuckoo-lychnis."' The flowers are of a light pink color ; the petals 
are cleft into long, sharp teeth ; calyx brown. 

Sc.\ELET Lychnis. — [Lychnis Chalcedonica.] Common flower in 
country gardens. It grows in a flat-topped cluster ; flowers small 
and bright scarlet. Petals are indented. Native of Russia. 

• Virginia Catchfly. — [Silene Virginica.] The name of " Catch- 
fly " was given from the sticky, downy substance which covers it, 
and by which small insects are often caught. This species has long, 
slender petals, cleft at tlie ends, and of a crimson color. Found in 
the open woods of the West and Soutli. 

Garden Catchfly. — [Silene Armo'ia.] A garden flower, some- 
times called "Sweet-william." Stem about one foot high, branch- 
ing, and bearing bunches of bright pink, or purplish flowers. Pet- 
als notched. 

Royal Catchfly. — [Selene regin.] A large flower, of beautiful 
scarlet color, when cultivated. Found an prairies from Ohio south. 
Grows three feet high. 

BoTJNCiNG Bet. — [Saponaria officinalis.] Sometimes called " Soap- 
wort," from the fact that the juice of its root and stem will form a 
soap-like lather. Flower of jialc pink color, usually double ; petals 
notched. Often found wild by the roadside. 



262 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

CniCKWEED. — [Stellaria media.] Sometimes called " Starwort." 
The well-kuown gurdeu weed "which is given to Canary birds. It 
has a small, white flower. Leaves egg-shaped. 

Spurrey. — [Spergida arvensis.] Leaves grass-like, growing in a 
circle around the stem. Has an open cluster of small, M'hite flowers. 
Found in grain-fields. Sometimes cultivated in Europe for feeding 
sheep. 

The Rose Family [Itosame] contains our most beautiful 
flower, the i^^«<', of which there are several hundred varieties; also, 
our most delicious fruits, as the a]>ple, 2Jear, quince, peach, 2dum, cher- 
ry, africot, nectarine, draicherry, Mackberry, rasplerry, almond. The 
jjlauts belonging to this order embrace trees, shrubs, and herbs. 

The Roue Family contains three great divisions or groups, viz.. 
The Rose Group, The Plum Group, The Pear Group. 

The Rose Group comprises shrubby, prickly bushes, with leaves 
of the feathered or pinnate form, each composed of from three to nine 
egg-shaped or ovate leaflets. Its blossoms, in a wild state, have five 
petals, many stamens, and several pistils. When cultivated, the num- 
ber of petals becomes numerous, the flowers beautiful, and of various 
tints, from white to a rich crimson. 

The raspberry, blackberry, and strawberry belong to the Rose 
grouji. It will be seen that the form of their flowers, their parts, 
etc., resemble the corresponding parts of the "Wild Kose. 

Damask-rose. — [Rosa Damaacena.] This beautiful rose is a native 
of the countries about the jMediterranean Sea. It has many petals, 
with colors varying from a delicate roseate hue to a rich rose-red. 
It is very fragrant, and its petals are used for making '■'■attar of 
roses.'''' Tlie bush grows from three to five feet high. It is culti- 
vated in our gardens. The low monthly rose is a variety of this 
kind. 

Wild Rose. — [Rosa lucida.] This rose is sometimes called the 
" Dwarf Wild Rose." It grows on a bush from one to three feet 
high, in fields and in woods. The flowers are small, of a jjale, red 
color, and grow in clusters of two or three. The leaves have a shin- 
ing appearance, and grow with five to nine on a stem. 

SwEETBRiER. — [Rosa rtiMginosa.] This is sometimes called "Eg- 
lantine." The sweetbrier is a stout, prickly shrub, from four to six 
feet high, growing in fields and by roadsides. The flowers are usu- 
ally solitary, with five rounded petals, of a light rose-color, and fra- 



PLANTS. 263 

grant. The leaves are small, and usually have sacs or glands on the 
under side, containing an aromatic fragrance, which gives a delight- 
ful iJerfume when the leaves are rubbed. 

French Rose. — [liosa Gallica.] Tliis is the common red-rose of 
gardens, from which have originated some three hundred varieties : 
among these are the " Carmine," " Carnation," " Velvet," " Nosegay," 
"York and Lancaster," etc. The numerous inner petals of the rose 
are develoj^ed from the stamens by cultivation. The dried petals 
of this rose are sometimes used in medicine. The pure tincture of 
rose, used for flavors in cooking, is made from the petals of this rose. 

Black Raspberry. — [Riiius occidental is.] This is sometimes 
called " Thimbleberry." The black raspberry bush grows along the 
borders of fields, and consists of a group of curved, slender stems, 
from four to six feet high. The leaves are egg-shaped, growing in 
clusters of three. Flowers white, with five petals. Fruit purplish 
black, of hemispherical shape, and when picked has a dee}), hollow 
place where it was attached to the fruit stem. 

Bl.\ckberry. — [liiihus villosus.'] This well-known bush grows 
from one to six feet high, consisting of slender stems, covered with 
strong prickles. Leaves egg-shaped, from three to five in a group. 
Flowers, with Live white petals, often growing in a cluster. Fruit 
black, globular, or slightly conical. 

Strawberry. — {Fragaria vesca.^ This well-known plant has 
wliite flowers, with five jietals. The seeds grow on the surface of 
the fruit. 

Pear Group. — The Pear group includes the pear, ai)ple, quince, 
cliokeberry, mountain-ash. TIic blossoms have five roundish petals, 
of a white or pink color, and grow in clusters. 

Pear. — [Pi/riis communis.] This delicious fruit is a native of Eu- 
rope ; but in its wild state the fruit is small and unpalatable. Flow- 
ers scentless, five white petals, with purjile anthers. Fruit tapers 
toward the stem. 

Apple. — [Pi/nis mains.] The common apple was originally 
brought from Europe. The tree grows from twenty to thirty feet 
high. Leaves long, egg-shaped. Flower -buds iDinkish ; tlie five 
wide-spread petals are partly wliite, with tints of pink and light 
purple, and fragrant. There are also several native, wild species of 
apple in this country. 

Quince. — [ Cyclonia vulgaris.] This is a small tree, so named from 
a city of Crete, from whence it was obtained. The oval leaves have 



264 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

a cottony surface beneath. The fruit lias a similar surface. It is 
hard, pear-shaped, of a yellowish color, and is used for preserves. 
The flowers have live petals, yellowish white, or very pale rose-color. 
The quince is supposed to be the " Golden Apple," celebrated in 
ancient fable. 

Plum Group. — The Plum group includes the plum, peach, nectar- 
ine, apricot, cherry, and almond. Tlie blossoms are white, or rose- 
colored, and consist of five petals, and from fifteen to thirty stamens. 
The fruit is fleshy, and contains a stone, or nut. The kernel of 
some of this group, as the jjcach and almond, contains pnissic acid, 
a deadly poison. 

Plum. — [Pnm7(S domesiica.] Said to be a native of Italy. Tree 
about fifteen feet high. Leaves dark green. Flowers solitary, with 
five whitish petals, twenty to tiiirty stamens, with yellowish anthers. 
Friiit has a smooth skin of various colors, a fleshy pulp covering 
a small, flattened stone, with sharp edges. Prunes, as used on the 
table, are large plums dried. 

Peach. — [Persiai vulgaris.] This well-known tree was named 
from its native country, Persia. Its leaves are lance-shaped. Tiie 
flowers appear before the leaves, with five spreading, rose-colored 
petals. The skin of the fruit has a woolly coating. Tlie fruit con- 
tains a rough " stone," or nut, which encloses the seed. There are 
many varieties. 

Cherry. — [Prumis cerasits.] This is named from Cerasus, an an- 
cient town in Turkey, from whence tiie garden-cherry is supposed 
to have originated. Flowers large, with five petals, white, tinged 
faintly with purple. The leaves and flowers appear about the same 
time. Fruit round and reddish, has a fleshy i)ulp covering a round 
stone, or " pit." 



POISONOUS PLANTS. 

Crowfoot Taimly.—lBanujiculficew.] This family contains many 
dangerous plants. All the members possess an acrid or bitter juice, 
which is watery or colorless, and more or less narcotic; while some 
of them are absolutely poisonous. In some of these plants their 
poisonous properties may be dissipated by a boiling heat, or by dry- 
ing in the sun. 

Their leaves are usually palmately or ternately lobed, and without 
stipules. ]\[any pUuits cultivated for ornament l^elong to this fam- 



FLAM'S. 265 

ily, as Anemone, Larkspur, Buttercup, Christmas -rose, Columbine, 
Monk's-bood, Clematis, etc. Owing to the poisonous character of 
some, and the susjiicious properties of others, it would be well to be 
cautious in relation to all the plants of this family. 

Crowfoot. — [Ranunculus sceleratus.] This plant grows in wet 
places, from Georgia to Canada. It grows about fifteen inclies high, 
and blossoms in June and July. It bears a small, bright yellow 
flower, with live petals growing singly on a slender stem. The seed- 
vessels form an erect, rounded cone. Leaves are three-parted. The 
juice, when fresh ., is very acrid, and will raise blisters upon tiie skin. 
It is a poison when taken internally. Cattle avoid this plant when it 
is fresh. 

Monk's-hood. — [Aconitum Napellus.] This plant is common in old 
gardens and waste places. It grows from three to four feet high, 
bearing a cluster of blue, helmet-shaped flowers. Tlie name Monk's- 
hood was given from the sliape of the upper portion of the flower. 
The leaves are deeply-cut, and several times divided, after the man- 
ner of those of the common larkspur. The seed-vessel consists of 
three lobes. The root is very poisonous, tuberous, or shaped some- 
what like that of the horse-radish, fiu' which it is sometimes mis- 
taken in the early spring, before the leaves appear. It should not 
even be touched by the tongue. This plant is also called Wol/^s- 
bane, because in Europe it is used for poisoning wolves. 

Baxeberuy. — [Actea apicata.] Tiiis plant is found in rich woods; 
grows about two feet high ; leaflets ovate and sharply cleft ; blos- 
soms in May and June ; berries red or purplish, and about the size 
of currants ; seeds smooth and flattened. Berries poisonous. 

Black Hellebore (CnRisxiiAS-ROSE). — [Hellchorus niger.'] This 
plant received the name of Christmas-rose because in the warmer 
parts of England it blossoms in the winter and early spring. It has 
large single white flowers, which turn pinkish, then green. In form 
the blossom somewhat resembles that of the strawberry. Tlie leaves 
are pedate, and of a shining green. It is cultivated in gardens, 
though not very common in this country. Its injurious properties 
should be known, that its serious effects may be avoided. 

Parsley Family. — Poison -jiemlock. — [Conium mnculatum.] 
Found in the Northern and Middle States by roadsides, in waste 
ground, and swampy i)lacos. Grows from three to six feet high ; 
lias very smooth stems, with purplish spots ; leaves are lance-shaped 
and coarsely-toothed, sometimes pointed ; flowers white and small, 

12 



266 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

growing in close clusters at the ends of the stems, like the water- 
he mloclc ; blossoms in July and August; fruit somewhat egg-shaped 
and ribbed. Root a deadhj jtoison. 

The entire plant emits a very offensive odor when bruised. Sup- 
posed to be the plant which the ancient Greeks used to destroy the 
statesmen of whom they were tired. This plant was introduced 
into this country from Europe. 

Water-hemlock. — [Cicuta vmcidata.] Tliis plant is a native of 
our country, and is found in swamps and wet jjluces ; even within 
the limits of villages and cities it is far too common for safety. It 
is a tall, rank herb, growing from four to six feet high. Its stems 
are hollow, l)ranching, smooth, and streaked with purple and brown ; 
the flowers are white, growing in clusters, which sjjrcad out like 
an umbrella. The veins of the compound leaves terminate in the 
notches; it blossoms in July and August. Fruit or seeds nearly 
round, with ribs, the channels between which are of a reddish-brown 
color, and filled with oily matter. 

Children often mistake it for sweet-cicely, which belongs to the 
same family. Its herl:>age is dangerous to cattle. 'TJie Jleahy root is 
fatally jMisonous. It is said that a drachm of the fresh root has 
killed a boy in less -than two hours after eating it. 

Fool's-parsley. — [^thtisa Cynapium.] This plant was originally 
introduced from Europe. It is sometimes found about cultivated 
grounds, but usually in waste places. Grows from one to two feet 
high, having a hollow stem, and dark-green, lance-shaped leaves. 
The flowers are white, growing much like those of tlie hemlock and 
wild i)arsnip ; blossoms in July and August. Fruit or seed near!}'- 
as broad as long, with prominent, straight ribs. This jilant is not 
only poisonous, but has a fetid odor. Leaves, seeds, and roots poisonous. 

Wild Parsnip. — [Pastinaca Satlva.] Grows wild in fields, by 
fences, roadsides, etc. Has a tall, grooved, l)ranching stem; leaves 
pinnate and deeply cut. Flowers, which appear in July, are yellow 
and small, growing in fine clusters, at the ends of seven or eight 
spreading umbels. Fruit flat, oval, with a broad, single-winged mar- 
gin, llie root is spindle-shaped, and well known in its cultivated 
state as a sweet-flavored esculent ; but in its wild state the root be- 
comes smaller in size, hard, acrid, and j>oisonous. 

Lobelia Family. ^ — Lohelia (Indian Tobacco). — [Lohclia inflata.'] 
This plant is found in dry, open pastures, and by roadsides. It 
grows from ten to fifteen inches high. Leaves elliptical, hairy. 
Flowers small, pale blue, and growing in leafy spikes. Blossoms 



PLANTS. 267 

I'roiii July to September. Leaves and flowers grow from the same 
axil. Juice milky and acrid. This plant is used as a medicine, but 
its jDoisonous qualities render it very dangerous. 

Figwort Family. — Foxglove. — [^Digitalis purpurea.^ Cultivated 
in gardens for its showy flowers; also by the Shakers and others for 
its leaves, which are dried and used as medicine ; but, owing to its 
poisonous properties, this plant should be used only by those having 
a clear knowledge of it. The jilant grows from three to four feet 
high ; flowers from two to two and a half inches long, rather hairy 
within, and beautifully spotted with deep purple dots, surrounded 
by white rings. The common name — "Foxglove" — is said to have 
been derived from an old Saxon word, Folks-glove. It is a native of 
Europe and Asia. 

Pine Family. — Yew. — Ground Hemlock. \^2'axus Canadensis.] 
American Yew. [IVuiis iaccata.] English Yew. The American 
Yew is a small evergreen shrub, from two to four feet in length, 
growing as a straggling, prostrate bush, never forming an ascending 
trunk. It is found in thin, rocky soil on hill-sides, near streams, 
and along moist banks, particularly in the shade of evergreen-trees. 
Leaves nearly an inch long, arranged in two opposite rows on each 
side of the branchlets. The blossoms are like scaly buds, and ap- 
pear in May. Fruit is of a coral red, and displays a black seed at 
the top. 

The leaves of this plant and iJie black seeds of the berries contain 
jwison. Tlie pulp of the berries is not considered unwholesome, 
but it is dangerous to swallow the black seeds. 

Mezereum Family. — Mezereum. — [Daphne mezercuvi.] This 
shrub belongs to the same iamily as the common " Moosewood," 
or " Leatherwood," and is also noted for its fibrous, tough bark. 
It is cultivated for ornament; grows from two to three feet high; 
leaves of a delicate green ; flowers of a purjilish rose-color, growing 
around the stems. These are succeeded by scarlet berries which are 
j)oiso?ious. The root and bark are acrid and caustic. Blooms early 
in spring. A native of Euroi^e. 

Smnac Family. — Poison-ivy. — {Rhus to.ricodendron.'] (Some- 
times k;u)wn as "Poison-oak," and occasionally as "Poison-vine.") 
A plant common in low grounds, climljing on fences, over rocks, 
and ascending trees. The variety which ascends trees, from twenty 
to forty feet in height, is usually designated as Rhus radicans. Its 
leaves are generally nearly entire. The stem of this variety some- 
times attains the size of one or two inches in thickness. It is cov- 



268 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

ered with a grayish, scaly bark, and fastens itself to the object upon 
■svliich it climbs by numerous bunches of rootlets thrown out along 
the stem. 

The leaves of the poison -ivy are of a shining green color, and 
change in autumn to a bright yellow, or orange, or a mahogany ; 
they always groio in groitps of three ; are ovate, with margins vari- 
ously shaped, from nearly entire to undulate, dentate, and cut-lobed, 
and are downy underneath. Flowers are small, greenish yellow, 
and grow in long, loose clusters. Blooms in May and June. 

The juice of this plant is rery j)oiso?ioiis to the touch. It causes an 
eruption of the skin, accompanied by an intolerable itching and 
burning sensation. 

The poison-ivy is sometimes mistaken for the Virginia creeper, 
a harmless plant which often is cultivated and known as " wood- 
bine." Attention to the following distinguishing characteristics of 
each vine will prevent these mistakes. 

Virginia Creeper — leaver grow in groups of five ; are large, oblong, 
and pointed, margins sharply dentate ; color, dark green, changing 
in autumn to a bright crimson ; berries dark blue, smaller than 
jDease ; stem fostens, in climbing, by tendrils. 

Poison-ivy — leaves groio in groups of three ; are ovate, with margins 
variously shaped ; color, shining green, changing in autumn to a 
bright yellow or orange ; berries vary from a dull white to a pale, 
shining brown ; are aljout the size of small pease ; stem clings by 
bunches of small rootlets. Poison -ivy is found from Georgia to 
Canada. 

Poison Scm.\c. — [Rhus venenata.] (Sometimes called " Poison 
Dogwood.") A shrub or small tree, common in swamps, growing 
from six to eighteen feet high ; bark gray, and generally smootli. 
Each leaf-stem has seven, nine, eleven, or thirteen green leaflets, ar- 
ranged in pairs on opposite sides of the red stem, with a single one 
at the end. The leaflets are smooth, oblong, abruptly pointed, mar- 
gins entire, from two to three inches long and about half as wide. 

The color of the leaves changes in autumn from green through a 
bright yellow to crimson and scarlet; but the leaf-stem, or mid-vein, 
remains an intense red during all these changes. The flowers are 
small and greenish, growing in alternate clusters on a long stem. 
The fruit is of a greenish yellow, dry, smooth, and shining, and 
aljout the size of small pease. Blossoms appear in June; berries 
ripen in September. 

The entire 2>lnnt is very poisonous to the touch or taste, n\\(\. even 
taints the air around it, so that some persons become poisoned by 



PLANTS. 269 

simply passing near it when in a state of perspiration. The poison 
produces painful swelling, inflammation, and intense itching. 

The j\fount'(iii iSumac, a small shrub, growing in dry, rocky places ; 
bearing a dark-green leaf, shining on tlie upper surface; greenish 
red flowers, in dense clusters, on a long stem ; fruit seed-like, red 
and hairy ; is not poisonous. 

Nettle Family. — Stinging Nettle. — [Urtica dioica.] Common 
in waste places and by roadsides; grows from two to three feet 
high ; stem four-sided ; leaves from two to three inches long and 
about one-half as wide, and downy underneath ; have short stems 
attached to opposite sides of the stalk ; margins deeply serrate. 
Blossoms from June to August. The entire plant is covered with 
stifi", tubular liairs, wliich transmit a venomous fluid when pressed, 
causing a stinging and itching sensation. 

JSTightshade Family. — Thorn-apple, or Stuamonium. — James- 
town weed. [Datura stramonium.'] A common plant, having a rank 
odor, growing in waste places, among rubbish, etc. The stem is 
about three feet high, smootli, hollow, and branching. The general 
form of tlie leaves is ovate, but the margins are cut in sharp angles, 
with gashes rounded at tlieir bases. The blossom is of a cream- 
white color, funnel-shaped, witli a long tube, somewhat plaited, and 
a border fine-tootlied. Tlie general form of the flower resembles 
that of the morning-glory. The seed-vessel, or pod, is about the 
size of a small apple, somewliat egg-shaped, and covered with 
spikes. It contains numerous flat seeds. Every 2}art of the i^lant 
is 2)oisonous. 

Common Nightshade —Black Nightshade. — [Solam/m nigrum.] 
An ugly, weed-like plant, growing about rubbish, in shaded places, 
with angular branches and smooth stems, which commonly rest on 
the ground. Leaves usually ap2)ear as if i)art]y eaten by insects. 
Flowers white, with a yellow conical centre, five-parted, grown in 
small, ojien clusters, on long stems. Blossoms during July and Au- 
gust. Berries are bluish black, round, and vary in size from large 
cherries to small ijcase. These are iMisonous. The plant has a dis- 
agreeable odor. 

Deadly Nightshade. — [Atrojia lelladonna.] A plant wliich 
grows about five feet high, branching near the ground; the stem 
and large leaves have a purplish tinge ; leaves narrow, oval, and 
pointed, growing in i)airs from opposite sides of the stem, witli a 
second pair of small leaves growing at the base of the lov.-er large 
leaves. Blossoms are somewhat bell-shaped, of a pale purple, grow- 



270 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

ing singly, also in pairs, from the stem at the foot of the leaves, and 
nodding. Berries are about the size of cherries, and cliange from a 
green color to a glossy black; are filled with a purple juice. Tiiese 
are exceedingly poisonous. The entire plant is dangerous. It is 
sometimes cultivated in gardens, and may occasionally be found 
growing in other places. It is a native of Europe; is used as a 
medicine. 

Henbane. — [Hi/oscyamus nigo'.] A tall weed growing about rub- 
bish of old houses, roadsides, and sometimes in old gardens. Stem 
round, branching, and about two feet high. Leaves large, oblong, 
l^ointed, and cut into sharp lobes, or deeply toothed. Blossoms of 
a dull yellow color, strongly veined with purple; they grow in one- 
sided spikes at the ends of the stems, from the foot of the leaves. 
The flower-cup is urn-shaped. The plant is hair}', sticky, of a sea- 
green hue, and emits an oflensive odor. The entire plant is poisonous. 

Bittersweet. — [Solamim dulcamara.'] A shrubby climber; stem 
branching several feet in length ; found on moist banks, near low 
ground, and around dwellings. Tlie lower leaves are entire, the 
upper ones halberd-shaped. Blossoms bluish purple, drooping, with 
tive pointed petals surrounding an orange-colored, conical centre. 
Each division or segment of the flower has two green spots at its 
base. Blossoms from June to September. Berries are oval, bright 
red, and poisonous. 

Poppy Family. — Celandine. — [Chclidonium majus.] This plant 
grows by roadsides, fences, etc., about two feet high ; stem is branch- 
ing, and very brittle. Blossoms have four petals, are yellow, some- 
what resemble the buttercup. Leaves consist of two to four pairs 
of leaflets, with an odd one at the end. Seed-pods an inch long. 
When broken, the plant exudes a yellow, strong-smelling juice, which 
is poisonous. It is sometimes applied to warts, to destroy them. 

Arum Family. — Jack-in-the-pulpit — Indian-turnip. — [A7-isce- 
ma tripJiyllum.] A common plant in rich, low grounds in woods. 
The fleshy stem of tliis plant divides into two parts near the 
ground; each branch bearing three oval, pointed leaflets at its end. 
Between the branches grow the blossom and the fruit. The fleshy 
si:)ike, around which the berries grow, is enclosed in a sheatii-like 
leaf, green without, but within variegated with stripes of dark pur- 
ple alternating with pale green. The form of this sheath is some- 
what like that of a Calla lily, but with the point of the sheath bend- 
ing over the cup containing the spadix or spike. Wlien ripening, 
the berries, growing around the fleshy sjiike in an oblong cluster, 



PLANTS. 271 

change from a greeu color to a bright scarlet. Blooms iu ]May. 
Fruit ripens iu August and September. 

This plant has a bulbous or corm-like stem in the ground some- 
what of a turnip shape, from the upper part of which there grow 
numerous fibre-like roots. The fleshy portion of the plant, when in 
a green state, is exceedingly acrid. Neither the bulbous root nor 
the berries should be tasted. 

Heath Family. — Sheep Laurel. — [Kalinia angusfi/olia.] Sheep- 
poison, Lamb-kill, are names sometimes applied to it. This shrubby 
j^lant grows from two to three feet high, iu damp grounds; leaves 
narrow, oblong, from one to two inches long, margin entire, surface 
smooth, color pale green. Flowers purplish crimson ; corolla short, 
five-toothed, slightly bell-shaped ; grow in clusters ; blossoms from 
May to July. Leaves believed to be poisonous to sheep. 

Mushroom Family. — Fly Mushroom. — [Agaricus mnsmrius.] 
The mushrooms spring up wherever there is suflicient heat and 
dampness, iu rich soil or heaps of decayed vegetable rubbish. First 
there appears a little knob, within which the stalk is gradually 
formed. By-and-by the outer skin bursts, and leaves a fleshy stem 
supporting a fleshy cap, which, gradually enlarging, tears the lower 
skin which united it to the column, and oi^ens like au umbrella. 

The Fly Mushroom., with its crimson cap dotted with white, is 
beautiful but dangerous, for it is very poisonous. It is said that 
when steeped in milk it will kill flics. 

Some varieties of mushroom are used for food; these are usually 
distinguished by their j^/hZ; gills, and by a peculiar odor. It is, 
liowever, quite unsafe for any person not perfectly familiar with the 
appearance and odor of the edible mushroom to venture tasting any 
of this tribe. 

Need of Illustrations. — Those who do not know the ap- 
pearance and noxious qualities of poisonous plants arc liable to 
serious accidents from tasting or handling them. Ignorance in 
relation to this matter is especially dangerous to children. These 
plants cannot be easily recognized by those who possess no ac- 
quaintance with botany, from descriptions alone. It is therefore 
exceedingly important that the young should be made sufficiently 
familiar with their appearance, by means of carefully-drawn pict- 
ures, to be able to distinguish such plants from harmless ones, 
and thus prevent liabilities to those accidents which occur from 



272 MANUAL OF CBJECT-TEACHING. 

handling and tasting these noxious members of the vegetable 
kingdom. 

It is believed that a proper use of illustrations of poisonous 
plants, and of these descriptions, will enable any person to attain 
the necessary acquaintance to protect himself from the dangerous 
eifects of such plants. 

A series of twenty-four illustrations of the poisonous plants* 
described here has been carefully prepared, to represent both their 
shapes and colors. p]ach illustration is on a card of the size of 
common album photographs, and may be procured by mail. 

Illustrations* of all the /raws, y?02tws, roo/s, etc., described in 
the preceding pages, have also been published on cards of the 
same size. 



* Published by L. Prang & Co., Boston, Mass. 



MINERALS. 273 



MINEEALS. 

" Tongues in trees— books in the running brooks — 
Sermons in stones — and good in everything." 

Special attention is directed to minerals, and a few 
simple facts given here concerning them, for the ])urpose 
of pointing ont still another field in which children may 
be led to extend their observations with pleasure and 
profit, and to increase both their powers of learning and 
their knowledge of the world in which they live. The 
chief aim now is to show how teachers may lead their 
pupils to take such notice of the common objects which 
may be found wherever they go, as to make them desire 
to know what the different stones have to tell about them- 
selves, and about that part of the world where they are 
found. 

Children may be easily induced to notice differences 
between the smooth, rounded pebbles by the brook-side, 
or on the shore of the lake or sea, and the rough, irregu- 
lar stones that are found near a ledge of rocks. "When 
they ask what made the stones so smooth, tell them how 
the swift-running water of the stream or the rolling waves 
of the sea rub the stones against each other, rolling them 
over and over, and thus wear off the corners and make 
them smooth. Tell them that their toy-marbles are made 
by breaking stones into small blocks, then placing a large 
number of them together, and by means of machinery 
rolling them against each other, round and round, while 
they are kept wet with water, and thus are worn smooth 

12* 



27tt MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

and to the shape of marbles. Ever after tliese children 
■will understand why some stones are smooth, and they 
Avill take more interest in looking at them. 

Prepare Pupils to Observe Minerals. — Before send- 
ing your pupils 'out to look at stones and rocks, give them 
one or two lessons to teach them how to distinguish dif- 
ferences in them. Give the pupils good specimens of 
quartz, of mica, oi feldsjpar, and of granite, to examine. 

Quartz. — Lead them to notice the very hard, clear, glassy 
qualities of the quartz; that it cannot be scratched with 
a knife or a file ; that it will scratch glass ; that it breaks 
into irregular pieces — then let them try to find quartz 
in a piece of granite. 

Mica. — Let the pupils notice the bright, glistening, 
tough, elastic, and almost transparent substance — mica; 
that it may be easily split into leaves thinner than paper; 
that it may be easily scratched with a knife — then let 
them find this substance in a piece of granite. 

Feldspar. — Lead the pupils to notice the white or flesh- 
colored &wh^i^wQ,C:—feldsj)ar — which bi'eaks with a bright, 
even surface, and in two directions; that it is not quite 
so hard as quartz, yet too hard to be scratched with a 
knife; that it may be scratched by the quartz^ — then let 
them find the feldspar in a piece of granite. 

Now the pupils will be prepared to go into the fields 
and along the roadside to look for each of these minerals 
— quartz, mica, feldspar — and for the rock called granite, 
which is composed of these three. When they have gath- 
ered their specimens, the teacher may assist them in cor- 
recting any mistakes jiiade in distinguishing either of the 
minerals. 

Sandstone. — At a subsequent lesson tell the pupils that 
quartz, when pulverized or made fine, forms sand. Let 



MINERALS. 275 

them examine coarse sand, and notice the fine grains of 
quartz in it. Show them a specimen of sandstone, and 
let them see that it is made np of small grains of sand ; 
that by scraping the sandstone witli a knife the small 
grains can be separated ; that these grains are not all of 
the same size, nor all composed of the same glass-like 
substance ; that some of them are softer than others, and 
seem like a kind of hard cement which fastens all these 
grains into a solid stone. Now let the pupils examine 
tlie sand and gravel in a brook, or on the shore of a lake, 
or the beach of the ocean, and be told that sand and 
gravel are formed by the motion of the water, which 
causes stones, pebbles, gravel, and sand to move about, 
and thus keep the pieces continually rubbing against each 
other, and grinding them smaller and finer. 

The pupils ma}' now be told that sandstone is formed 
by layers of fine sand deposited in deep water, and then 
pressed together by the weight of the sand and water 
more and more firmly from year to year; and that after 
a very long period of years these layers of sand become 
solid rocks. 

Calcite. — A common form of crystallized calcite is 
called dog- tooth -sjKir. Calcite, in a rock form, is lime- 
stone. When burnt, it is carhonate of lime (the material 
that is slacked in water and used for making mortar). 
Calcite is easily distinguished from feldspar and other 
minerals by its effervescence with acid ; by its being 
easily scratched with a knife ; by its infusibility in the 
hottest fire ; and by its cleavage in three directions, and 
with rhombic faces. 

Dolomite. — When limestone contains magnesia mixed 
with the lime, it is called magnesian limestone, or dolomite. 
Dolomite and calcite a]ipear much alike ; but dolomite 
does not effervesce freely with acid unless the acid be hot. 



2 TO MANXAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Chalk is limestone. Maible is limestone ; bnt some- 
times it is of tlie magnesian kind. Calcareous rocks are 
kinds of limestone. Limestone, in its various forms, has 
dull colors, from white — through gray, yellow, red, and 
brown — to black. It is very abundant in this country, 
except in the form of chalk. Chalk is found in large 
quantities in England and France. 

Show your pupils specimens of calclte in the forms of 
limestone, marble, carbonate of lime, and crystals. Lead 
them to experiment with these, and observe the several 
characteristics by which this mineral may be distinguished 
from feldspar and other minerals. They will then be 
prepared to collect specimens of rocks, to examine them, 
experiment with them, and determine whether they be- 
long to either of the classes of minerals or rocks already 
named — quartz^ inica^ feldspar^ sandstone, calclte, etc.* 

These and similar lessons on minerals may be extended 
so as to include those to be found within the regions that 
may be visited by your pupils. Indeed, these and other 
lessons intended to introduce children to nature, and in- 
duce them to become interested in studying the charm- 
ing pages illustrated with real minerals and rocks, plants, 
blossoms, and fruits, and all the varieties of animal form 
and life, should begin at the home of the young learner, 
and with things within his easy observation. 

That you may do this intelligently, make yourself ac- 
quainted with the character of the rocks and minerals in 
the vicinity of your school ; then teach your pupils how 
to distinguish or know the different kinds, and tell them 
where each may be found. By such means many boys 
have been led away from idleness and bad associations. 



* Teachers and older pupils who desire to learn more about minerals 
and rocks will find the following books very useful : IIookcr''s 3ll>teralogy 
and Geohgy ; The Geoloijical Story Brkfly Told, by Dana; Science Primers, on 
Geoloffi/, and on Fki/sical Geography. 



MINERALS. 277 

and the foundations laid for observing and studious Jiab- 
its, and lives of great usefulness. 

Try what virtue there is in developing a love for min- 
erals, plants, and animals, and in after years many will 
bless you in remembrance of valued instruction, and the 
numerous sources of happiness unfolded to them. 



278 ■ MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



CHEMISTRY ; Oil, ELEMENTS OF SUBSTANCES. 

From the lessons under tlie head of "Properties of Objects" 
you learned to distinguish three classes of substances — Animal, 
Vegetable, Mineral. The succeeding lessons on animals and on 
plants furnished you additional facts concerning the first two of 
these groups. I now propose to direct your attention still fur- 
ther to the class called Minerals, and, while guiding your obser- 
vations upon this group, to point out some new facts which will 
give you a better knowledge of all kinds of substances. 

You have learned that a mineral has no life, no feeling, no mo- 
tion, and does not take food ; and yet the mineral supplies food 
to the vegetable world, and the vegetable world furnishes the 
food for the animal world. Thus, while this substance has no 
life of its own, it supplies the materials for life to the other two 
classes. 

IIow can this be true, when minerals are snch things as stones, 
sand, clay, iron, lead, silver, etc. ? you may inquire. I will try to 
explain this matter. 

All the words that you know and can read or write, and all 
the words in the books, are made up of Icttei-s. "When you learn 
to write a word, you know what letters make the word, and how 
they arc arranged. In our language there are only twenty-six 
letters, and these enable us to make up more than one hundred 
thousand words. These letters are the elements of our written 
language. 

Minerals, like wiitten words, are made up of elements. All 
the matter that constitutes all the rocks, stones, iron, gold, silver, 
lead, cla}', ice, and water in the world is made up of elementary 
substances, which are the letters of nature. There are about six- 
ty-three of these mineral-letters. As the letters of our language, 
by different combinations, form different words, so these mineral 
elements, by different combinations, form different substances. 



MINERALS. 



279 



Some of these mineral-letters cannot be seen -when alone, or 
not united with one or more other letters. This gfoup of min- 
eral-letters we call gases. Some of these letters can be seen, felt, 
and tasted; these are called liquids and solids. Some of the sol- 
ids we call metals, and some we call minerals. 

I will write the names of a few of these mineral -letters in 
groups, and thus show you what some of them are called, and to 
which group they belong : 

MINERAL-LETTERS. 
6ase.s. Solids. Minerals. 

Oxygen, Carbon, Iron, 

Nitrogen, SuljyhKr, Silver, 

Hydrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, 

Chlorine, Silicon, Sodium, 

Fluorine. Iodine. Calcium. 

These mineral -letters are commonly called Elementary Sub- 
stances. All the matter that constitutes the rocks, land, water, 
trees, grain, and animals of the whole earth is made up of these 
letters of nature. The names of only fifteen of them are given 
above, yet these elementary substances constitute more than one- 
half of all tlie matter in the world, including animals, vegetables, 
and minerals. One of these elements — oxygen — is the most 
abundant one in nature. It comprises one -fifth of the air we 
breathe, eight-ninths (by weight) of the water we drint, more 
than two-fifths of the land we walk on, and a large part of the 
food we eat, as vi-ell as of the clothing we wear, of the houses we 
live in, and of the tools we use. 

In our written language the letters form words, the words are 
combined into sentences, and the sentences into language as a 
whole. Ill nature the mineral-letters, or simple substances, form 
the mineral-words of nature ; and these words of nature are com- 
bined into tlie three great sentences of nature — minerals, vegeta- 
bles, animals ; and these three groups, or books, of nature com- 
prise the whole world of matter. A knowledge of these elements, 
and of their laws of combination, is called Chemistry. By a care- 



280 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING. 

ful study of this science you may loarn tlie composition and nat- 
ure of all the materials of which the world is made up. 

As in our language some words contain only one letter, or ele- 
ment, while some words contain two letters, others three, four, 
five, or more letters, so it is in these words of nature, some sub- 
stances contain only one letter, or element, some contain two ele- 
ments, some three, four, five, or more elements. As each word 
in our written language is complete in itself, and has a definite 
meaning, so each of these words of nature is complete of itself, 
and is known as a definite substance, with its own distinct prop- 
erties. 

I will now give you the names of a few of the words of nature, 
and tell you what letters or elements form them : 

Substances with one Element. — Silver, iron, sulphur, 
carbon, or charcoal, are each words containing only one letter, and 
the name of the letter in each case is the name of the substance, 
just as the names of the letters A, I, and are the names of the 
three words wdiich they constitute. 

Substances with two Elements. — Air, loater, sand, and 
salt are each words containing only two different letters, or ele- 
ments. The name of eacli element in these substances is as fol- 
lows: Air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen; "Water is com- 
posed of oxygen and hydrogen ; Saiid is made up of oxygen and 
silicon ; Salt is made up of sodium and chlorine. 

Substances with three Elements. — The following sub- 
stances contain each three elements, or letters, as follows : Sugar 
contains oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; Starch contains oxygen, 
hydrogen, and carbon ; Glycerine contains oxygen, hydrogen, and 
carbon ; Vinegar contains oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. 

It will be noticed that each one of these substances contains 
the same elements. In some written words the same letters are 
repeated, so in some substances the same elements arc repeated 
several times. Sugar contains more than twice as much oxygen 
and carbon as starch does. Glycerine contains less of each oxy- 
gen, hydrogen, and carbon than either sugar or starch, but more 
of each of these elements than vinco:ar. 



MINERALS. 281 

Substances with four Elements. — Eacli of the follow- 
itiGf substances contains /o«r elements, as follows: Gun-cotton is 
composed of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon ; Cream of 
Tcirtar is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon^ and 2^otash ; 
Bronze is composed of copjjcr, tin, zinc, and lead. 

Substances with five Elements.^Eacb of the follow- 
ing substances contains five elements, as follows : Gunpowder is 
composed of oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, and potassium ; 
Alum is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, aluminum, p)otassium, and 
sulphur. 

As in our written language you must know how the several 
letters arc combined, and how many times any or each of those 
letters are repeated in the same word, so in these words of nature 
you must learn how these simple substances are combined, and 
how many times each is used in the same substance before you 
can understand how these combinations of the same elements can 
produce such different substances. All of these facts about the 
combinations of elementary substances to form all things that we 
can see, smell, taste, or feel, you may learn by the study of chem- 
istry.''' 

A knowledge of this science is useful in all the occupations of 
life, and is indispensable to the chemist, the physician, and to suc- 
cess in many kinds of manufacturing. It is valuable to the farm- 
er, to the merchant, to the miner, and the house-keeper. 

* Teachers and students will find the following books useful for elemen- 
tary instrnetion on this subject: Hooker'' n First Book of C/iemUtrij ; also 
Hooker's Second Book of C/ieini.stnj, or Hcience for itie Hchool and Family; 
and the Science Frimer of Chemistry. 



282 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



OCCUPATIONS AXD TEADES. 

All wlio are to become actors, and not mere lookers- 
on in the world, should be so instructed that thej may 
understand the nature and purpose of the most important 
things and occupations around them. Children like to 
learn additional facts about things, places, and occupations 
of which they have seen and know but little ; but to so 
learn that their knowledge shall become of practical value, 
they need to be guided by parents and teachers. Among 
the most useful lessons learned are those which the real 
teacher prepares the pupils to understand, and stimulates 
them to learn by their own observation and experience 
outside of the school-room. 

Children mIio have had their attention thus directed to 
different occupations will thereby gain knowledge that 
will prove nseful to them in many ways in later yeai's. 
When the boy comes to decide upon the business for his 
life, he will have something to aid him in determining 
what he would like to do. 

The boy whose attention has been specially directed to 
the work performed, and to the articles produced by the 
different occupations, will learn readily the duties of his 
position. He will be able to perform them with such in- 
telligence as to command better wages than one whose 
education has not been thus practical. 

It is hoped that the following lessons, facts, and sugges- 
tions to teachers will aid in accomplishing a work of great 
value to their pupils. Tlie successful teacher aims to con- 
nect the lessons of the school-room Avith the children's ex- 



OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES. 2S3 

periences of ont-of-school life, tlnis making the instruction 
interesting, practical, and most effective. The lessons 
about what people do furnish excellent opportunities for 
accomplishing this purpose. 

Play Exercises. — Simple exercises might be commenced 
with quite young ])upils, and made the means of training them 
in the use of language. They could be introduced under some 
such titles as the following: "Plays at Ilousedceeping," "Plays 
at Store-keeping," " Plays at House-building ;" and thus, in aid 
of instruction, advantage may be taken of that characteristic of 
childliood which leads the young to want to play in imitation of 
■what they see older people do. 

Suppose the girls play " Set a Supper-table." One might say, 
"I will put on the table-cloth;" another, "I will put on the 
plates;" others, "I will put on the knives and forks;" "I will 
get the cups and saucers;" "I will make the tea;" "I will get 
the bread, and cut it;" "I will bring the butter;" "I will bring 
the cake, and cut it ;" " I will put on the cheese ;" " I will get the 
teaspoons;" "I will put on the preserves;" "I will put the nap- 
kins by the plates;" "I will place the chairs around the table;" 
" Let me bring the cream and sugar for the tea ;" " I will bring 
the water and the tumblers." 

Each pupil, in another exercise, might say what she would like 
for supper, or breakfast, or dinner, according to the meal that 
was being represented. The exercise might be varied by each 
telling what to put on the table (appropriate to the given meal), 
as if directing a servant to do it. 

When the setting of the table has been completed, the teacher 
might preside, and request each pupil at the play-dinner to tell 
what kind of meat, vegetables, etc., she would like. By this 
means many useful lessons in table-manners may be taught. The 
exercise of good judgment and tact by the teacher will render 
such exercises exceedingly interesting and profitable to children. 

The boys might play "Keeping Grocery." Let one pupil rep- 
resent a customer, the next one the grocer, the next a customer, 
the next the grocer, etc., somewhat as follows : " Have you nice 



284 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

eating-apples?" "Yes; would you like sonic?" "I will take 
two quarts." 

" Please give me two pounds of your Lest tea." *' Here is 
your tea; the price is one dollar and a half for the two pounds." 

"What is the price of your best butter?" "Twenty -five 
cents." "I will take two pounds." 

" How much do you ask for good potatoes ?" " Twenty cents 
a peck." " You may send me one peck." 

" Please give me three and a half pounds of powdered sugar," 

" I would like a pound of crackers." 

" I wish half a pound of cheese," etc., etc. 

During these exercises the pupils are supposed to speak in 
turn, or by permission of the teacher, after expressing their read- 
iness by holding up a hand. 

The range of appropriate topics may be increased as the pupils 
become familiar Avitli the plan of proceeding. These exercises 
may be made a means both of recreation and useful instruction 
at the same time, and may be introduced from time to time, say 
once a week, in some form, until the pupils are able to take up 
lessons of a more advanced character, in which a wider range of 
observation will be developed. 

Older pupils should have more advanced lessons, which might 
be conducted somewhat in the following manner : 

"What People Do. — To-day we will talk about what people 
do to earn a living. You know that some people keep stores, 
and sell things ; some have shops, and make things ; some print 
books ; some bind books ; some sell books ; some make clothes ; 
some make furniture ; some make wagons ; some make bread and 
cake ; some teach school ; some preach ; some go to see people 
when they are sick; some make and sell medicines; some supply 
us with meat; some build houses; some raise wheat, corn, and 
other things for our food ; and many people do other kinds of 
work for a living. We call that which people do for a living 
their business, or occupation. 

The Names of Occupations shall be our lesson for to-<lay. I 
will write the word occivpations on the blackboard, and as each 



OCCUPATIONS. 



285 



pupil in turn names some occupation, I will write the word under 
this on tlie blackboard. The pupils may copy these words on 
their slates. 

[The teacher writes the words as given by the pupils, arranging 
them in columns. At tlie close of the exercise many of the words 
in the following list will have been written :J 



OCCUPATIONS. 



Farmer, 

Gardener, 

Miller, 

Baker, 

Grocer, 

Butcher, 

Tailor, 

Hatter, 

Tanner, 

Shoemaker, 



Merchant, 

Milliner, 

Dress-maker, 

Mason, 

Carpenter, 

Glazier, 

Painter, 

Upholsterer, 

Cabinet-maker, 

BlacksmitJ], 



Cooper, 

Turner, 

Jeweller, 

Saddler, 

Sailor, 

Musician, 

Teacher, 

Clergyman, 

Physician, 

Lawyer, 



Dentist, 

Druggist, 

P^ditor, 

Printer, 

Paper-maker, 

Bookbinder, 

Bookseller, 

Lithographer, 

Engraver. 



"When the pupils have mentioned all the occupations they can 
think of, instead of telling them the names of others, the teacher 
may request them to notice what they see people working at, 
after they go home from school. 

For the second lesson on occupations, let the pupils take their 
slates, and each one write the names of all the occupations that 
he can remember. To ascertain what names have been written, 
and which pupil has the greatest number, one pupil may read 
his list, and each other pupil check on his own slate the names 
read, with a cross thus x for each name read, that he has writ- 
ten. When the pupil has finished reading his list, let those who 
have other names read them, and finally have a complete list 
written on the blackboard. 

As this exercise affords excellent practice in spelling, it may be 
repeated two or three times with profit. During the repetition 
of the exercise, each pupil should write his list without copying 
from other pupils. As a conclusion, ascertain which pupil has 



286 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACULNG. 



written the most names of occupations, and which one has spelled 
the greatest number correctly. 

For a subsequent lesson, let the pupils choose one of the occu- 
pations named as a subject for a lesson that shall require a more 
careful observation concerning it. Suppose the pupils choose 
that of the tailor. The teacher may write the word Tailor on 
the blackboard, and the following heads : 



"Wliat lie uses. 
Garments made. 



What he does. 
Names of their parts. 



Request each pupil to write these heads on his slate, leaving 
spaces for several words under each, and then to write names of 
things used, work done, garments made, and of their parts under 
the proper head. Let the lists formed by the pupils be com- 
pared as before, and a complete list placed on the blackboard, 
which might be nearly like the following : 





TAILOR. 


What he uses. 


What he does. 


Measure, 


Finds the size, 


Cloth, 


Cuts, 


Shears, 


Sews, 


Needles, 


Makes clothes. 


Thread, 


Fastens the seams, 


Wax, 


Makes the thread smooth, 


Thimble, 


Pushes the needle. 


Goose, 


Presses the seams. 


Board, 


Holds the cloth for pressing, 


AVater. 


Moistens the seams. 


Garments made. 


Parts of garments. 


Pantaloons, 


]3ack. Front, 


Vest, 


Collar, CufF, 


Coat, 


Sleeve, Leg, 


Overcoat, 


r>ntton. Button-hole, 


Cloak. 


locket. Skirt. 



OCCUPATIONS. 287 

Exercises •yvitli these lists might be repeated two or three times, 
until the pupils become familiar with the spelling of each word. 

The lesson might be extended by requesting the pupils to 
give the names of the kinds of cloth used by the tailor, as heaver, 
cassimere, doeskin, broadcloth, satinet, melton, tweed, flannel, velvet, 
corduroy, duck, satin, scrr/e, silk, silesia, hair-cloth. 

Subsequently the pupils might answer the following questions, 
orally or in writing : What do tailors measure ? Whi/ do they 
measure ? What do they cut ? When do they baste ? What do 
they press ? Wht/ do they press ? etc. Whei-e do tailors obtain 
their cloth ? What do they produce ? IIow do they procure 
their food ? 

At another time the trade of a slioomakcr may be chosen as 
the subject of the lesson, and then the blackboard might contain 
something like the following : 

SHOEMAKER. 

"What he uses. "What he does. 

Cowhide, calf-skin, Measures, cuts, pastes, lasts, 

Morocco, sole-leather, Pegs, tacks, sews, stitches, 

Knife, awl. Fits, trims, foots, taps, 

Float, tacks. Mends, caps, half-soles. 

Wax, shoe-thread, Pounds leather. 

Pincers, pegs, nails. Soaks leather, 

Last, strap, hammer. Blacks, trims, polishes. 

Parts of a shoe. Parts of a boot. 

Toe, heel, sole. Leg, front, or vamp, 

Shank, quarters. Heel, toe, instep, shank. 

Tongue, lining, insole. Counter, seam, straps. 

Kinds of Boots, Shoes, etc. — Heavy boots, riding-boots, 
fine, calf, patent-leather, Congress gaiters, Oxford ties, shoes, slip- 
pers. 

TF/mi do shoemakers measure ? cut? paste? peg? sew? 

Why do they measure? paste? peg? sew? 



288 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Whi/ do they sew instead of peg? 

Why do they hammer leather ? 

Wht/ do they use wax ? 

Where do they obtain leather? 

What is leather made from ? 

Who makes the leather? 

What do shoemakers produce? 

How do they procure food and clothing? 

It is important that the teacher shall so conduct these lessons 
as to make them profitable exercises in spelling and in the use 
of lano-uao-e. 



OTHER LESSONS ON OCCUPATIONS. 

For tlie purpose of aiding teachers in preparing other 
lessons on trades and occupations, the following lists of 
inatei'ials and implements used, hinds of icork done, and 
articles ])roduced, are given under appropriate heads, with 
suggestions as to methods of giving the lessons. It is ex- 
pected that these lists, etc., will be arranged by each teach- 
er so as to adapt the work to each special class of pupils. 
liCt the teacher take the materials, profit by the sugges- 
tions, but make each lesson for his own class. 

Allow me to add in this connection that these lessons 
will become much more interesting to the pupils, as well 
as more profitable, if the trade or occupation is illustrated 
by suitable pictures. Excellent illustrations have been 
prepared for purposes of teaching, which represent tools 
used, persons at work with them, and articles produced by 
each of the following trades and occupations :'^ 



* Pravg' a Aida for Object-teaching — Trades and Occupations, illustrated in 
colors ; each i)icture 23 by 14 inches ; with a Manual of Directions, by N. A. 
Calkins. 





OCCUPATIONS. 




281 


Carpenter, 


Tailor, 


Prin 


\ter. 


Blacksmith, 


Baker, 


Lithographer, 


Shoemaker, 


Gardening, 


The 


Farm-yard, 


Tinsmith, 


The Kitchen, 
FARMER. 


Hay 


-making. 


What he uses. 


What he does. 




What he raisei 


Axe, 


Chops, splits. 




Wheat, 


Plough, 


Turns up soil, 




Corn, 


Harrow, 


Makes soil fine. 




Oats, 


Hoe, 


Plants, 




Barley, 


Spade, 


Digs holes. 




Rye, 


Shovel, 


Moves earth and grair 


h 


Pease, Beans, 


Crowbar, 


Lifts stones, etc.. 




Buckwheat, 


Oxen, 


Draw, cart, and ploug 


\ 


Hay, 


Scythe, 


Cuts grass, 




Potatoes, 


Cradle, 


Cuts grain. 




Turnips, 


Rake, 


Collects grass and grain. 


Pumpkins, 


Pitchfork, 


Lifts hay and grain, 




Fruits, 


Fanning-mill, 


Cleans grain. 




Sheep, 


Bags, 


Holds grain, 




Cattle, 


Baskets, 


Carries fruit. 




Hogs, 


Ladder, 


Climbs, 




Hens, geese. 


Horses, 


Ride, plough, draw wagon. 


Turkeys, 


Wagon, 


Carries loads. 




Wool, 


Chain. 


Fastens. 




Flax. 



AVhat docs the farmer produce? How does he obtain his 
clothing and implements for work? Why does the farmer 
plough, sow, plant, moiv, thresh ? 



The teacher should ask the several questions attached to each 
occupation, and talk with the pupils concerning them, that they 
may obtain correct ideas as to the importance of each kind of 
work. 

13 



290 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



CARPENTER. 

Tools used for Cutting. — Axe, adze, chisels, gouges, shaving- 
knife, spoke-shave, hatchet, saw, broad-axe. 

Tools used for Boring. — Augers, gimlets, bits-and-brace, biaJ- 
awl. 

Tools used for Pounding. — Hammer, mallet, beetle, sledge- 
hammer. 

Tools used for Measuring and Marking. — Rule, square, bevel, 
gauge, compasses, level, plumb-line, scratch-awl, chalk-line. 

Tools used for Smoothing. — Planes, scraper, rasp, file, sand- 
paper. 

Materials used. — Timber for sills, posts, beams, plates, rafters, 
girders, joists, braces, studs, scaifold. Lumber : plank, boards, 
siding, or clapboards, lath, shingles. 

Parts of a Building. — Sides, ends, walls, partitions, roof, eaves, 
windows, doors, shutters, window-sill, door -sill, base, balcony, 
floors, ceiling, cornice, frieze, panel, moulding, stairs, etc. 

Tools. Their Uses. 

Rule For measuring. 

Square To form right angles. 

Gauge To make parallel lines. 

Level To find horizontal position. 

Screw-driver For driving screws. 

Brad-awl For making small holes. 

Kinds of Work done. — Hewing, sawing, mortising, bevelling, 
mitering, scarfing, sheathing, siding, scribing, furring, framing, 
shingling, pinning. 

What is meant by hewing? sawing? mortising? bevelling? 
mitering? scarfing? sheathing? scribing ? furring ?^ (^ic. 

What do carpenters produce ? 

How do they procure food and clothing? 



OCCUPATIONS. 291 

BLACKSMITH. 

"What he uses. Why he uses it. 

Forge Place to work with iron. 

Coal To heat the iron. 

Bellows To raake th^ fire very hot. 

Tongs For holding hot iron. 

Anvil To lay the hot iron on. 

Hammer For pounding the hot iron. 

Punch For making holes in hot iron. 

Vise For holding iron firmly while shaping or filing it. 

Easp Coarse file. 

Drill For boring holes in cold iron. 

Chisel For cutting iron. 

p . , ,. (A chisel-like instrument, with a bent shank and 

( long handle, for paring hoofs of horses. 
■r, 1 j Table-like shelf at the side of the shop for small 

( tools. The vise is fastened to it. 

Kinds of "Work Done. — Blowing, striking, welding, cutting, 
drilling, tempering, shoeing, setting tire, ironing wagons, etc. 

Articles Made. — Horseshoes, nails, bolts, nuts, screws, braces, 
hammers, hooks, chains, hoes, axes, tires, etc. 

Blacksmiths blow, heat, strike, weld, temper. 
What do ihoy bloiv ? heat? strike? tveld ? tcm2'>cr? 
Why do they blow? heat? strike? weld? temper? 
What does the blacksmith produce ? 
How does ha procure food and clothing? 

TINSMITH. 

Tools Used. — Shears, pincers, pliers, nippers, vise, hammer, 
mallet, soldcring-furnace, soldering-iron. 

Materials Used. — Tin, wire, sheet-iron, solder, rosin, charcoal, 
copper, brass, zinc. 

Articles Made. — Pails, pans, cups, dippers, measures, teapots, 



292 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

coffee-pots, teakettles, dishpans, saucepans, cans, boilers, coal-scut- 
tles, tin roofs, etc. 

Tin-ware is made from thin sheets of iron covered with tin 
by dipping the sheets of iron into melted tin three or four times. 
While the tin metal remains on the iron it protects the iron 
from rust. Tin metal is harder than lead, but softer than silver. 

What does the tinsmith produce ? 

How does he obtain his food and clothing? 

PAINTER. 
What he uses. 

For White Paint. — W^hite-lcad, zinc-white, Spanish-white. 

For Yellow Paint. — Yellow-ochre, Naples-yellow, chrome-yel- 
low, gamboge. 

For Blue Paint — Ultramarine, cobalt -blue, Antwerp -blue, 
Prussian-blue, indigo, Berlin-blue. 

For Red Paint. — Red-lead, red-ochre, madder, cochineal, ver- 
milion. 

For Green Paint. — Chrome -green, emerald -green, Scheele's- 
green, verdigris. 

For Brown Paint — Umber, Terra di Sienna, bistre, Vandyke- 
brown, Spanish-brown. 

For Black Paint. — Lamp-black, ivory -black. 

For Mixing Paint. — Linseed-oil, spirits of turpentine. Some- 
times the oil is boiled before mixing with paint ; sometimes it is 
used in a raw state. 

To make the paint dry quickly, a little litharge, or sugar of 
lead, or Japan varnish is mixed with it. 

Implements and Materials Used. — Paint-stone, paint-mill for 
grinding paint, pots, cans, brushes, putty, putty -knife, pumice- 
stone, sand-paper, brushes, varnish, ladder, etc. 

Blinds ofWork Done. — Puttying holes over nail-heads, smooth- 
ing with sand-paper, " killing knots" with shellac, priming, paint- 



OCCUPATIONS. 293 

inf^, graining, marbling, stippling, sizing, varnishing, frescoing, 
kalsomining, lettering, oiling, etc. 

The painter 2)rese7-ves and ornaments. Ue does not construct 
anything nor produce anything. 

What has the painter to sell ? 

How does he obtain food and clothing ? 



PRINTER. 
Materials and Instruments, and their Uses. 

Type. — For printing letters, words, and figures. 

Type- cases. — Shallow drawers, with small compartments or 
boxes for separating the different letters and figures. 

Composing-stick. — A narrow, oblong frame, made of iron or 
steel, for holding type as the compositor sets the letters in words 
and sentences. 

GaUey. — An oblong, shallow tray, usually with a thin brass 
bottom, and sides of wood. When the compositor has set his 
stick full, he places the lines on the galley. 

Imposing-stone. — A smooth stone slab, on which the type from 
the (jalley is placed, to be made up into pages and forms, ready 
for printing. When books are stereotyped, the pages are made 
up on a galley, then placed in a form and sent to the foundry, 
where a mould is taken of the face of the pages, and thin plates 
of type-metal are cast, from which the book is printed. 

Chase. — An iron frame, which is placed around type on the 
imposing - stone, and into which the type or matter is firmly 
wedged with furniture (narrow strips of wood), and quoins or 
wedges. 

Planer. — A smooth, oblong block of hard wood, which is 
placed upon the face of the type on the imposing -stone, and 
gently pounded, to make the surface even. 

Shooting-stick. — The piece of wood or iron used in driving 



294 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

the quoins or wedges -when locTcing tip the form. One end is 
placed against the wedge, and the other is struck with the mallet. 

Leads. — Thin strips of type-metal placed between the lines 
of type to separate them, so that the print may be read more 
easily than when the lines are solid. 

PrintLng-press. — The machine on which the form of type is 
placed, and by means of which paper is pressed upon the inked 
type and printed. 

Platen. — The part of the printing-press on which the type 
rests. 

Tympan. — Part of the printing-press ; a wooden frame, cov- 
ered, with two folds of cloth, between which is stretched, a wool- 
len blanket. The tymimn carries the sheet of paper to be 
printed, and forms a soft surface over the paper, to equalize the 
pressure upon the type. 

Roller. — The part of the press that places the ink on the face 
of the type. 

Frisket. — A slender frame to hold the sheet of paper in its 
proper place on the tympan while it is moved over the type to be 
printed. 

Fly. — The frame of narrow, thin bars at the back of the press, 
which places the printed sheets upon each other in a pile. 

Trough. — The box of water in which the pressman dampens 
the paper to prepare it for printing. 

Kinds of "Work done by the Printer. — Composing — 
setting type ; cUstrihnting — placing the letters in their proper 
boxes, after they liave been used ; justification — increasing or 
diminishing the spaces uniformly between the words, until the 
lines agree with each other in length ; making-up — adjusting the 
matter into pages after it has been set up by the compositor; 
im2)osing — placing the matter on the imposing-stone, after it has 
been made into pages, and enclosing it in a chase ; locking-np> — 
wedging the type firmly in the chase ; taking proof — inking the 
type, and pressing upon it a sheet of damp paper; reading proof 
— having the manuscript, or copy from which the compositor 



OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES. 295 

set liis type, road, so as to compare it Avith the words in the 
proof-sheet ; correcting proof — unlocking the matter, and chang- 
ing all the words which were not set up correctly. This work 
is done by the compositor. Revising the form — comparing the 
type in the form with the proof, after the compositor has cor- 
rected his errors in setting, to see that all the corrections have 
been made. This is sometimes done by 9. foreman^ the man who 
supervises the other workmen. 

Terms used by Printers. — Solid matter : type set up 
without leads between the lines. Leaded matter : type that has 
leads placed between the lines. Live matter: type that has been 
set, but not yet used for printing that for which it was set. L>ead 
matter : type that has been used in printing, and is ready to be 
distributed in the cases again. Ems : the square of the body of 
a letter m of each size of type is the measure for estimating 
the amount of matter that has been set of that size. The mat- 
ter is measured to see how many square spaces of the em size 
the entire amount of type set up covers. Compositors are paid 
for setting type at a fixed sum for each thousand ems. Proof- 
sheet — the impression taken from the type after it is locked up. 

Names of Sizes and Kinds of Type. 

This is Great Primer type. 

This line is English type. 
This line is Pica type. 
This line is Small Pica type. 
This line is Long Primer type. 
This line is Bourgeois type. 
This line is Brevier type. 
This line is Minion tj"pe. 
This line is Nonpareil type. 






This line is Agate type. 
This line is Pearl type. 
Tbifl Udo is Diamond tjp«. 

TM« lino U BrilliADl Ijp*. 



(iiljis is ©III (!:ngli0l) (J^jipc. 



29G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"Wliat is writing ? "What is printing ? Why do people write ? 
When do they write instead of print ? Wliy is printing used in- 
stead of writing? 

IIow does the printer obtain food and clothing? 

Each trade, or occupation, may be made tlie subject of 
two or three lessons. These should be given at such times 
as will afford the pupils abundant opportunities, between 
the time of the first and tlie last lesson, to gain infor- 
mation by personal observation. The development and 
training that results from the experience of the pupils in 
seeking facts relating to a subject, when the facts are 
sought from a desire to linow, rather than for a lesson 
to be recited, comprise the most valuable part of these 
lessons. 

These and similar lessons may be multiplied by the 
teacher as the needs of the pupils and time will permit. 
It is not recommended that an attempt be made to give 
lessons upon all the trades and occupations that can be 
named, but rather that each teacher shall select a few — 
those most suitable for the particular class — and give 
these, from time to time, in alternation with lessons on 
animals, or some other subject, as a means of connecting 
home experiences and the daily observations of the pupils 
with school lessons, thus tending to make school instruc- 
tion real education. 



PHYSICAL TRAINING. 297 



PHYSICAL TKAmmG. 

The great means of improving any power, physical or 
mental, is exercise. In all cases, the exercise is subject to 
the same laws and conditions, and produces the same re- 
sults. The first effect of exercise on a muscle is to occa- 
sion the destruction of a portion of the material that com- 
poses it, and this leads to an increased flow of nutritious 
material to restore that part. In this way the repeated 
exercise of a muscle enlarges its size, and gives it in- 
creased strength and power. 

In like manner, the exercise of any of our mental pow- 
ers, while causing the destruction of a portion of the 
nerve material of the brain, causes also an additional flow 
of nutritious material to that part, and thus the mind is 
improved and strengthened by the increased volume and 
strength imparted to the organ of the mind — the brain. 

The result of a proper exercise, whether physical or 
mental, is to increase the activity of all parts of the sys- 
tem. Thus, in a rapid walk the mental powers are af- 
fected, and ideas flow more readily. At flrst an increased 
flow of blood is imparted to all parts of the system ; and 
it is when the waste in one particular part becomes 
greater than the natural supply can restore, that an addi- 
tional supply is drawn from other parts, thus depriving 
those parts of their due share of nutrition, that a feeling 
of fatigue is produced. Any bodily exercise, long con- 
tinued, tends to produce mental fatigue ; and long-con- 
tinued mental exercise occasions bodily fatigue. Hence 

13* 



298 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

people who have much physical labor feel a dislike to 
great mental exercise, and those who perform great men- 
tal labor are naturally disinclined to engage in active 
physical exercise. 

We may learn from a study of physical training how 
to proceed in the training of our mental powers, and also 
how to strengthen tlie moral powers. Leading children 
to observe and quietly practice wliat is right will have 
much better effect than the mere telling of the right and 
warning of the wrong. 

The material upon which our mental manifestations 
depend is the same as that which supplies our physical 
frame, and is subject to the sanie laws, and is nourished 
in the same way. The same arterial blood nourishes all 
parts of the system, and is dependent upon the digestive, 
respiratory, and other functions of the body. Hence it 
is til at a sound hody is necessary to a sound mind, and 
soundness of mind is necessary to health of body. 

There are more than five hundred muscles in the hu- 
man body, and the great majority of these are under the 
control of the will power ; yet from the want of proper 
training a double force is required to accomplish their 
work, because they are allowed to act in an irregular, 
slovenly, and awkward manner. By training the muscles 
to act promptly nnder tlie will power, the action itself 
becomes mtfre easy, and the demand upon the nerve pow- 
er is correspondingly less. 

The effect of proper physical training is to enable the 
several bodily organs to perform the greatest amount 
of exercise with the greatest ease or the least fatigue. 
Physical education has for its true object the training 
of the various physical organs so that they will render a 
ready and efficient service to the mind. 

"An important result of physical exercise is that it 
imparts hcaltli and vigor to all parts of the system. It 



PHYSICAL TRAINING. 209 

accelerates the circulation of the blood, strengthens the 
vessels, increases the cutaneous exhalations, and preserves 
the fluids in a healthy state. It improves the appetite, 
quickens the digestive operations, and increases the heat 
of the body. The body is thus rendered capable of re- 
sisting colds, and fortified against the attack of numerous 
diseases." Even in the cure of many diseases, physical 
exercise is an important agent. 

Attention to physical training for developing and 
strengthening the body forms an important part in the 
requirements for a complete plan of education. Both the 
body and the mind may be educated by means of such 
exercises as will impart vigor and tone to their respective 
powers of action. Indeed, health of body increases the 
vigor of the mind ; and the physical well-being of the 
body cannot be neglected without impairing the powers 
of mind. Foremost among the needs to secure a healthy 
body are pure air and an abundance of pleasure-giving 
exercise. And foremost among the important duties of 
parents, in relation to their children, is attention to the 
securing of the necessary conditions for the growth of 
healthy bodies; then the development of a sound mind 
may be made to follow by proper training. 

Were suitable physical exercises made an essential and 
indispensable part of education for both sexes, many dis- 
eases which are the consequences of neglected bodily de- 
velopment, or the result of constitutional debility, might 
be prevented, and, at the same time, the mental faculties 
be more fully developed. 

Were parents generally aware of the great extent to 
which the seeds of disease are sown in crowded school- 
rooms, and the common neglect by school officers and 
teachers of those matters which pertain to the pln'sical 
welfare of children in school, they Avould not submit to 
such negligence in the adaptation of school-rooms to the 



300 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

purposes for which they are used ; for not only is the 
ventilation generally poor, but the means for proper ex- 
ercise of the body are not provided. 

It is true that in schools children do practise singing, 
marching, and various evolutions, such as clapping hands, 
folding arms, standing and sitting alternately, etc. ; yet 
these exercises, although found to be of great utility, do 
not bring sufficiently into action the various parts of the 
body to answer the ends of more distinct physical exer- 
cises. Nevertheless they indicate, to some extent, the im- 
portance of proper attention to the physical education of 
children ; also, that this matter would be better attended 
to by teachers were they provided with more specific di- 
rections as to how they may introduce suitable exercises 
into school without tlie expense and trouble of procuring 
apparatus. 

It is hoped that the descriptions and illustrations of 
movements presented herewith, for exercising the differ- 
ent portions of the body, and the directions supplied for 
their use in school, will induce many teachers to give this 
matter more attention than they have hitherto devoted 
to it. And in the use of the following physical exercises 
it should be remembered that each kind of exercise has 
its appropriate conditions. It ought not to be continued 
too long, nor cease too soon ; nor be made too slow, nor 
too fast. 



rnYSICAL EXERCISES. 301 



f 



PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 

Kinds of Movements, and their Effects. — For conven- 
ience in describing the several kinds of movements, and for facil- 
ity in directing the pupils while practising the different exercises 
embraced in each, the movements are divided into seven classes, 
the name of the chiss indicating the portion of the body which 
is to be exercised by it ; and the class is divided into groups, to 
show the kinds of motions to be made. Several of the motions 
of each group are illustrated by cuts, to represent the mode of 
making them. 

ARM MOVEMENTS. 
First Group-— Arms-stretching. 

Arms forward — Fig. 1. 
backward — Fig. 2. 
Motions. — ^ " upward — Fig. 3. 

downward — Fig. 4. 
sidewise — Fig. 5. 

Arms Forward-stretching. — Move each arm forward and back, 
alternately, four times. Move both arms forward and back, with 
force, four times. See Fig. 1. 

Arms Back-ward- stretching. — Move each arm backward, al- 
ternately, four times. Move both arms backward, with force, 
four times. See Fig. 2. 

Arms TJp-ward-stretching. — Move each arm upward, alternate- 
ly, four times. Move both arms upward, with force, four times. 
See Fig. 3. As the arms are brought downward, the hands may 
strike the breast near the shoulder. 

Arms Down-vT-ard-stretching. — Move each arm downward, al- 
ternately, four times. Move both arras downward, with force, 
four times. See Fig. 4. 



302 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



Arms Sidewise - stretching. — Move each arm sidewisc, out- 
ward, alternately, four times. Move both arms outward, side- 
wise, four times, with force. See Fig. 5. 




Fij,'.l. 



Pi''. 2. 




FiK. 4. 



Fig. 5. 



Arms-Stretching Combined. — Move both arms forward twice, 
backward twice, iqnvard twice, downward twice, sidewise twice. 

Seoond Group.— Arms-swinging. 

' Arms apart — Fig. 6. 
" together — Fig. 7. 
Motions. — \ " sidewise — Fig. 8. 
" forward 
" backward 



Fig. 9. 



Arms S-winging Apart — Place the arms together, horizontally, 
in front, and swing them apart, backward, four times. See Fig. G. 




ZlO 




Arms Swinging Together. — Carry the arms, horizontally, from 
in front slowly outward, and bring them forward with force, strik- 
ing tlie palms of the hands together. Eepeat this four times. 
See Fig. 7. 



PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 



303 



Arms Swinging Sidewise. — Hold the arms parallel and hori- 
zontally, and swing them from side to side, four times, each way. 
See FiiT. 8. 



-~^Q 





Arms Swinging Forward and Backward. — Place the arms in 
a horizontal position in front, then swing them backward and for- 
ward, four times each way, without bending the elbows. As the 
arms are swung backward, the shoulders should incline forward, 
as in the cut. See Fio-. 9. 



Third Group.— Arms-raising ; Arms-twisting. 

Arms Sidewise - raising. — Carry the arras, without bending 
them, from the sides slowly to a perpendicular position over the 
shoulders, and down again slowly, four times. This exercise 
greatly aids respiration. See Fig. 10. 





Fig. 10. 



Fi-'.n. 



Arms -twisting. — Extend tlie arms horizontally, hold them 
straight, and twist them forward and backward four times each 
way. See Fig. 11. 



304 



MANUiVL OF OBJECT-TEACHLXG. 



The arm movements facilitate the circulation of the blood, 
Q'ive free action to the joints of the arms, promote expansion of 
the chest, and aid respiration. 



Motions.- 



HAND MOVEMENTS. 

Finger exercises — Fig. 12. 
Wrist exercises — Fig. 13. 
Palm exercises — Fia:. 14. 



Finger Exercises. — Open and shut the hands, with force, eight 
times. Spread the fingers as the hand opens. See Fig. 12. 

"Wrist Exercises. — Extend the arms in a horizontal position, 
keep them straight, and describe figure oo s with the hands closed, 
and with the hands open, four times in each position. See Fig. 
13. 

A good exercise for the wrists and muscles of the arms. 






FiK.12. 



Fi?.13. 



Fiff.l4. 



Palm-nibbing. — Extend the arms in front, press the palms of 
the hands together, and, without bending the elbows, draw each 
hand alternately over the entire length of the other four times. 
See Fig. 14. 

An excellent exercise for the muscles of the arms and shoul- 
ders. 

Modifications of the arm movements and of the hand move- 
ments may be introduced by the teacher that will add to the va- 
riety of the exercises and extend their good results. Care should 
be taken to keep up the interest of the pupils in all the move- 
ments. 



PUYSICAL EXERCISES. 



305 



Motions. — 



HEAD MOVEMENTS. 

Head-rotating. 

Head-turning — Fig. 15. 

Ilead-bending — Fig. 1 6. 
Head-rotating. — Place hands on the hips, and turn the head 
from right to left, and from left to right, four 
times each, bending the neck as the head ro- 

i^ki """• 

\^=\:./ Head-turning. — Place hands on the hips, 
and turn the head sidewise, without bending 
the neck, four times each way. See Fig. 15. 
Head-bending. — Place hands on hips, and 
bend the head forward and backward, fo-ur 
times each way. See Fig. 16. 
The pupils should stand during these movements with heels 
together, and toes turned outward. The head movements should 
be made slowly. They ai'e useful as a remedy for tendency to 
vertigo, giddiness, headache, etc. 




Fig. 15. 



Motions. — 



KNEE MOVEMENTS. 
( Knee forward-bending — Fig. 17. 



( Courtesying — Fig. 18. 
Knee Forward-bending. — Place hands on hips, put one foot 
a long step forward, as in pacing, then bend the for- 
ward knee, keeping the other knee straight, and thus 
lower and raise the body four times. Change 
position, and repeat the same with the other 
knee four times. See Fig. 17. 

Courtesying, or Knee-bending. — Place heels 
together, toes turned outward, hands on hips, 
and let the body sink down slowly, as low as 
possible, while the trunk maintains an upright position ; 
then rise on the tiptoes to the utmost height, four times 
each. See Fig. IS. These knee movements arc excellent 
for the lower extremities, making the joints and muscles stronger. 




Fig. 17. 



30G 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 



Motions. — 



SHOULDER MOVEMENTS. 

Slioulder-raLsing — Fig. 19. 
Shoulder-bending. 

Shoulder -raising. — Raise right shoulder as higli as 
possible four times, then left shoulder in same manner 
four times ; then raise both shoulders together as high 
as possible four times. In making these motions, lower 
the shoulders gently, to prevent jarring of the head. 
See Fig. 19. 

If any pupil has one shoulder lower than the other, 
the shoulder-raising should be performed with the de- 
fective shoulder onhj. 

Shoulders Forward and Backward Bending. — Stand erect, 
place arms at sides, and bend shoulders forward and backward 
four times each way. 




Motions, 



(H 



CHEST MOVEMENTS. 

Chest expansion. 

Half -chest exercise — Ficr. 20. 



Chest Expansion. — Place hands on hips, take full and deep 
inspirations, and allow the air to pass out slowly, through the 
nostrils, four times. 

Second Exercise. — Inflate the lungs, and beat the chest, while 



holding the breath, four times with each hand alternately, 
ceed gently at first. 

Half-chest Exercise. — Place one hand under the arm, 
pressing tightly against the ribs, and put the other hand 
on the head ; then bend the body sidewise as far as pos- 
sible toward the hand against the side, and take four 
deep breaths. 

Change the hands, and repeat the same with the other 
side four times. Let the breathing be as deep and com- 
plete as possible, but gentle and regular. 



Pro- 




PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 



307 



TRUNK MOVEMENTS. 
First Group.— Trunk-twisting. 

( Twist to the left— Fig. 21. 
Motions.— -j Twist to the right. 

' Twist left and right. 
Make these motions with hands on hips, also with 
hands on head. 

Trunk - twisting. — Stand with heels together, toes 
turned outward, and shoulders back ; place hands on 
hips, and turn as far as possible without moving the 
feet, to the left two times, to the right two times, and 
to the left and right two times each way. See Fig. 21. 

Repeat these motions with the hands on the head. Fig. 21. 

Second Group.— Trunk-bending. 

( Bending sidewise — Fig. 22. 
Motions. — -j Forward and backward— Fig. 23. 
' Backward-bending — Fig. 24. 

Trunk Sidewise - bending. — Stand with heels together, toes 
outward ; place hands on hips, and bend the trunk two times to 
the right and two times to the left ; then two times each way to 
the right and left. See Fig. 22. 

The same motions may be repeated with hands clasped over 
the head. 






Fig. 23. 



riK.24. 



Trunk Forward and Backward Bending. — Stand as before, 
with hands on hips; keep the trunk straight while bending for- 



308 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



ward and backward, as if the hips were the hinges, slowly four 
times. See Fig. 23. 

Trunk Backward-bendiug. — Stand as before, plaoc the hands 
firmly at the small of the back, and bend backward slowly, as far 
as possible, four times. See Fig. 24. 

These trunk-bending movements tend to strengthen the mus- 
cles of the back and abdomen, and to relieve constipation. 



Motions. 




Third Group.— Trunk-rotating. 

Turn body toward right — Fig. 25. 
Turn body toward left. 

Trunk - rotating. — Stand with heels together, 
toes turned outward ; place hands on hips, bend the 
body toward the right, round backward, left, and 
forward, slowly, four times ; then bend body to- 
ward the left, round backward, right, and forward, 
four times. See Fia-. 25. 



Fis. 25. 



Motions.- 



Fourth Group.— Trunk-stretching. 

Stretch on both feet — Fig. 26. 
Stretch on one foot. 

Trunk - stretching. — Stand with feet apart, extend 
the arms above the head, rise slowly upon the toes, 
and stretch upward as far as possible four times. In- 
flate the lungs while rising, and expel the air while set- 
tling down upon the heels. See Fig. 26. 

Stretch on one Foot. — Stand on one foot, rest light- 
ly on the toe of the other, and stretch upward four 
times, inflating the lungs, and expelling the air as be- 
fore. Change ; rest on the other foot, and stretch up- 
ward as before. 




Fig. 20. 



TEACHING THE MOVEMENTS. 309 



TEACHING THE MOVEMENTS. 

In arranging the foregoing list of physical exercises, the 
aim has been to give a variety of motions which can be 
introduced into any school-room without apparatus, and, 
at the same time, such as will bring into action all parts 
of the body, but most thoroughly the trunk, arms, and 
upper portions of it. Owing to the fact that out of 
school children usually exercise their legs more tiian any 
other part of the body, in these school movements more 
exercise has been provided for the trunk, arms, and chest 
than for the legs. 

It will be observed that several of the movements de- 
scribed act upon the same organs of the body, although 
in a somewhat different manner. All of these motions 
may be taught, yet during the daily drills the pupils 
should not go through with the entire list of exercises. 
Farther on, sets of movements will be given to indicate 
what would be appropriate for a single drill. 

"While teaching these exercises to the pupils, those of 
onegrou]) of movements o»/y should be taught at the same 
lesson ; but those previously learned may be reviewed 
with each new group taught, until the pupils are familiar 
with all the classes of movements, and with the exercises 
of each class. 

In giving instruction in the movements, the teacher 
should stand in front of the pupils, at such a distance that 
all the motions can be distinctly seen, and the directions 
clearly understood. First, require every pupil to observe 
the teacher: this attention must be secured, or the exer- 
cises cannot be successfully introduced. 



310 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Care should be taken to secure prompt and uniform 
action by all the pupils, for this precision will add greatly 
to the interest of the exercises, and also to their beneficial 
effects upon the system. Indeed, promptness and deci- 
sion alone will keep up interest in the movements for a 
long time, when all other means have failed. 

After the pupils have become familiar with the exer- 
cises of several of the classes of movements, sets of exer- 
cises may be arranged for purpose of daily drill. In se- 
lecting the movements for these sets, care should be had 
to include those which act upon as wide a range of organs 
as practicable. 

It is hoped that the following sets will sufficiently il- 
lustrate this point to enable teachers to arrange other sets 
of exercises with special reference to the needs of their 
own pupils. 

SETS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. "^ 

I. 

Arm Movements. — Arms-stretching. 
Head Movements. — Head-turning. 
Knee Movements. — Knee forward-bending. 
Chest Movements. — Cliest expansion. 
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-twisting. 

II. 
Arm Movements. — Arms-swinging. 
Hand Movements. — Finger exercises. 
Head Movements. — Ilcad-bending. 
Knee Movements. — Courtesy ing. 
Chest Movements. — Ilalf-chest exercises. 
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-bending. 



TEACUING THE MOVEMENTS. 311 

III. 

Arm Movements. — Arms-twisting, arms-raising. 

Haiid Movements. — Wrist exercises. 

Head Movements. — Ilead-rotating. 

Knee Movements. — Knee forward-bending. 

Trunk Movements. — Trunk-stretching. 

IV. 

Arm Movements. — Arms-stretching. 
Hand Movements. — Palm exercise. 
Shoulder Movements. — Shoulder-raising. 
Chest Movements. — Chest expansion. 
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-rotating. 

v. 
Knee Movements. — Knee forward-bending. 
Hand Movements. — Finger exercises, wrist exercises. 
Shoulder Movements. — Shoulder-bending. 
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-bending. 
Chest Movements. — Half-chest exercise. 



312 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHma 



EXERCISE-DRILL. 

Having described the movements, and given a few 
"sets" suitable for daily exercises, it now remains to 
point out a way in which these exercise -drills may be 
used in school for the promotion of good health, and im- 
proving the physical condition of the pupils. 

These movements are best for a large class when ac- 
companied with music by the piano ; but, where this is 
not obtainable, vocal exercises may be substituted, such 
as counting one, two, three, four ; oi*, making the vowel 

sounds, as a, a, a, a. Either a musical instrument or vocal 
exercises are important for securing that attention to time 
which gives precision and interest to the movements. 

The teacher may direct the movements by announcing 
the grouj) and motions somewhat as follows, viz. : 

"First Position!" [Standing erect, resting upon both feet, 
heels together, toes turned outward about forty-five degrees, arms 
hanging at sides, eyes toward the teacher. This position is to be 
maintained until changed to execute the movement announced.] 

"Arms-stretching: forward — one, two, three, four ; backward 
— one, two, three, four; upward — one, two, three, four; down- 
ward — one, two, three, fom*; sidewise — one, two, three, four; 
rest." Pupils resume the first position. 

"Head-turning [Pupils place hands on hips at this announce- 
ment] : right — one, two, three, four ; loft — one, two, three, four ; 
rest." 

"Knee Forward - bending : riglit — one, two, three, four; 
change ; left — one, two, three, four ; rest." 



EXERCISE-DRILL. 313 

"Chest expansion [slowly, with lungs inflated]: one, two, 
three, four ; inflate lungs — one, two, tliree> four ; rest." 

"Trunk-twisting: left — one, two, three, four; right — one, two, 
three, four ; left and right — one, two, three, four ; rest." 

The announcement of the kind of movement slionld be 
the signal to the pupils that they are at once to assume 
the necessary position to commence the movement' with 
the count one. Where a piano is used, signals may be 
arranged so that the pupils will be guided by the piano, 
after the kind of movement has been announced ; indeed, 
a M'hole set of exercises could be contl acted by signals on 
the piano alone. After a little careful experience tlie 
teacher will be able to devise modes of directing these 
exercise-drills in an appropriate manner. This experience 
will become successful by observing a few important facts, 
viz. : The exercise should be done slowly at first. A few 
thoroughly - mastered movements, well made, are more 
useful than many exercises half learned and poorly per- 
formed. Promptness in executing the movements, witli 
a spirited, cheerful manner, add much to their useful- 
ness. 

During these exercises there should be an active cheer- 
fulness; and, if amusement can be combined with them, 
their beneficial results will be more apparent. Some of 
the ex.ercises require slow movements ; others may be in- 
creased in rapidit}^ so as to be more enlivening, after the 
children have become accustomed to them. 

It may be asked. How often should these physical ex- 
ercises be given in school ? 

This question must be answered by one M'ho is famil- 
iar with the arrangement of the school — the priiicipal, or 
chief teacher. But in giving the answer it sliould be re- 
membered that sufficient bodily exercise is just as impor- 
tant to the welfare of the child as is the mental exer- 

14 



314 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

(,'ise, or study — indeed, tlic mental exercise cannot be most 
beneficial without due attention to the physical training. 

With the younger pupils brief exercises should be had 
every half-hour, occupying the time of one group of move- 
ments. Sometimes the needed relief may be afforded the 
young pupils by standing and sitting two or three times 
alternately, and a brief exercise with hands and arms. In 
class<5s of older pupils the exercises may be used less fre- 
quently ; but the teacher should notice those indications 
of the need of exercise, of fresh air, etc., which the pupils 
give by restlessness, listlessness, and general relaxation of 
interest and attention, and the necessary relief should be 
afforded at once, without waiting for a fixed time for phys- 
ical exercises. This can usually be given by spending a 
few moments in some simple exercise that will promote a 
freer circulation of the blood. 

But aside from these impromptu exercises, there should 
be at least fifteen minutes spent each half-day in such ex- 
ercise-drills as will improve the general physical condition 
of the pupils. 

Physical training should not be confined to the school- 
room. To train children properly, amusing games ought 
to be devised for play-ground exercises, and such as will 
cultivate kindly affections. Games of skill and dexter- 
ity should be encouraged, both at home and at school. 
Allowing children plenty of hearty, innocent fun on 
proper occasions will promote their happiness and in- 
crease their mental and physical development. Seek to 
guide children in suitable amusements rather than de- 
prive them of such needed recreation. The confidence, 
love, and obedience of children may be won by such a 
course. 

The primary school especially should be a light, cheer- 
ful place. The hours of school attendance should not 
be long; from four to five hours a day, for the younger 



EXERCISE DRILL. 315 

pupils of a primaiy school, is better than six, even for 
mental proficiency. A primary school that has even five 
hours of session per day should have an hour or more of 
interval at mid-day. Besides, there should be also one or 
two recesses during each session for the younger children. 
The exercises of the school should be so arranged as to 
give a change of position and of subject as often as every 
twenty or thirty minutes. Children will rarely give suf- 
ficient attention to derive much benefit from a lesson that 
is continued for a longer time. 

Whenever possible, lessons that require the exercise of 
different senses should follow each other, with young pu- 
pils, as these changes afford relief to the mind, and con- 
tinue the interest of the children in the lessons without 
fatigue. 

Singing is a physical exercise of wonderful power in 
relieving the more serious work of the school. It exerts 
a calming and cheering influence. Singing is indispensa- 
ble to the successful management of a primary school ; 
it is a great moral power. Exercise songs, in which va- 
rious physical actions are represented or performed by 
the pupils, are very appropriate for primary schools ; but 
when an attempt is made to teach geography, arithmetic, 
or any other similar study by means of singing, an other- 
wise good exercise is employed for an improper purpose. 
The province of singing is not to train the intellectual 
powers, but to cultivate the feelings and the heart, and it 
should be used in its proper sphere. 

The means suitable to be used for physical culture arc 
various. A skilful teacher will select those best adapted 
for the peculiar circumstances of the school. All things 
that tend to cleanliness and personal neatness, proper 
modes of sitting, standing, walking, holding books, slates, 
sitting at desk and holding pen while writing, marching 
with a military step on leaving the school-room, arc use- 



310 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

fill means in physical training, and tliese matters should 
receive the careful attention of all teachers. 

Training the voice by phonetics, or the elementary 
sounds of the language, in distinctness of articulation, in 
reading and speaking, is an important means of physical 
culture. In short, pure air, thorough ventilation, and reg- 
ular physical exercise arc indispensable to health of body 
and mental progress. 



MUIUL TKAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 317 



MOEAL TRAINIXG" AND SCHOOL 
DISCIPLINE, 

"O'er -wayward childhood wouUVst thou hold firm rule, 
And sun thee in the light of happy faces, 
Love, Hope, and Patience, these must be thy <2;races, 
And in thine own heart let them first keep school." 

COLEllIDGE. 

If the intellectual powers of mind may be called the 
machinery of intelligence, the moral powers may be des- 
ignated as the forces that set this machinery in motion, 
and direct the course of its action toward good or evil, 
luippiness or misery. The right development of these 
forces, therefore, is of greater importance to the welfare 
of the child than the education of the intellectual powers. 

Moral development is based upon the emotions. The 
emotions spring originally from those impulses which 
urge each individual to preserve his own life, to seek his 
own welfare, and which invite him throngh pleasures ex- 
perienced to tliose things which are beneficial, and warn 
him by pains endured to shrink from that which is inju- 
rious. But emotions require the guidance of intelligence 
and reason to attain the best good for the individual and 
for society. 

We cannot create an emotion, but we can incite it to 
action by presenting the appropriate stimulus. The law 

* Please read under head of Science of Education what is said about the 
" PoAvers of Moral Action," page 430; and the "Power of Willing," page 
443. 



318 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of emotion is, " Like begets like." Kindness in ns begets 
kindness in others ; selfishness in ourselves awakens self- 
ishness in those around us. The emotions become active, 
just as sensations arise in response to the natural excitants 
of their several organs. We can no more help loving 
that which seems to us amiable, and which awakens in 
us corresponding emotions, than we can help seeing light 
and hearing sound. The same may be said in regard to 
hating that wliich appears to us odious. 

There are several kinds of impressions, which affect the 
emotions with differing results, as with satisfaction^ with 
2)leasiir€, with disgust, \x\\\\ jxiin. The two kinds of im- 
pressions which strengthen the mind are those of satisfac- 
tion and pleasure ; those which weaken, or in some way 
affect the mind injuriously, are disgust [iudj>ain. These 
impressions are often produced by impatience, injustice, 
and constant fault-finding by those who have the training 
of children, and may result in great injury to their moral 
and intellectual life. Above all things, then, let such per- 
sons strive to be patient, gentle, and persevering in all 
their dealings with the young. 

Emotions are the attractions and repulsions Mdiich tend 
to keep us in our proper relations to the world around. 
The emotions that we entertain return to us again and 
again, until they finally remain permanently, influencing 
all our conduct. Every action that m'c perform, every 
thought that crosses the -mind, every emotion that we feel, 
is the beginning of M'hat may become a habit, and a part 
of our character, ^o person is competent to say that he 
will do a wrong act only once, because the doing of that 
very act deprives him of a portion of his power to resist 
the temptation to do it again. So, on the other hand, 
each single, manly resistance of an inducement, or inclina- 
tion, to do a wrong act increases the power of resistance, 
and weakens the temptation or desire to do it. 



MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. ' 319 

It has been well said that " a thought is an embryo 
action ; give it time, and it will mature itself ; entertain 
it, and it will return again and again, until at last nothing 
but a determined effort of the will can prev^ent it from 
acting itself out." Herein lies the real source of much 
of the wrong-doing in the world. AVrong thoughts are 
entertained until, unconsciously, they gain the power to 
escape in actions, and society is astounded by what seems 
to be a sudden loss of integrity. But the thoughts that 
led to the dishonest act had been entertained until its 
accumulated strength overcame the resistance of a weak- 
ened will. 

To impress those under your instruction with habits 
of entertaining only good thoughts, and of acting from 
right motives, is your highest duty as a teacher. Success 
in this is the greatest triumph a teacher can attain. 
Training in good habits of thinking and acting is of 
more value to your ])upils than the learning of all that 
the best text-books contain concerning the whole circle 
of the sciences. 

IIow can these important ends in education be attained? 
AVhat may Primary teachers do toward securing so great 
a boon ft)r their pupils? These inquiries deserve more 
serious attention by each teacher than the matter of how 
to teach reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, gram- 
mar, writing, or all of these studies combined. 

Perhaps you are now in imagiiKition before your class, 
and wishing to know how you can change the wayward 
actions of your pupils by moral training. IIow can tiie 
incidents of school be seized so as to drive out wrong ac- 
tions by bringing in good actions ? may be your inquiry. 
I shall not undertake to tell you how you may accom- 
plish this result in each individual class, but I will try 
to bring before you incidents to explain the nature of 
this work, and such as I trust will give you practical 



320 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

hints that Avill enable you to proceed so as to attain a 
good degree of success. 

Whatever the means you select to aid in the moral 
training, in order to be effectual, must be so long con- 
tinued as to gain power through the intiuence of habit. 

Facts to be Remembered. — The following important 
facts should be remembered in connection with methods 
that may be employed in moral training and discipline: 

First — From thirty to fifty active observers are receiving im- 
pressions from your manner of moving^ from your tones of voice, 
from the disposition and temper which you exhibit before them, 
from your kindness or tlic want of it, from your earnestness of 
purpose, from your justice and firmness, from your efforts to make 
the school-room pleasant. These impressions, according to their 
nature, will help or hinder your work of moral instruction and 
discipline. 

Second. — Cheerfulness of disposition, 2)Ieasant tones, tvords of 
encouragement, kindly spoken and properly bestowed, evenness of 
manner, and uniform justness, will inspire the confidence of your 
pupils, and such a degree of respect as will remove the chief bur- 
den in governing your class. 

Third. — Study carefully the disposition, taste, and habits of 
your p)U2nls. Find out what most readily interests them, and 
what they like to do. Awaken in them a desire to do something 
to please some one else, and from this lead them to do things to 
please you. "When you find that a boy can do one thing well, 
you h.ive a key to his character, and an indication as to its prop- 
er management. AVhat a boy does out of the pure impulse of 
his own nature, he does better than when he acts under any other 
motive. 

Fourth. — Remember that activity is a law of childhood. Your 
success as a teacher will depend much upon the manner in which 
you guide that activity. Shape your methods of teaching so that 
your pupils shall have opportunity to be active in body as well 



MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 321 

as in mind. They take the deepest interest in those exercises 
which afford activity for their limbs. 

Remember that if yoa do not furnish occupation for your pu- 
pils, and malvc the lesson interesting to them, they will soon learn 
to find such occupation as pleases themselves, and become so ea- 
ger in seeking it as to pay but little heed to your efforts for pre- 
venting them from acting in accordance with their bad choice. 

The best order does not consist in maintaining any fixed posi- 
tion, nor in absolute quietness, but rather in that interested atten- 
tion to the lessons which so occupies the minds of the pupils as 
to leave no inclination for disorder. 

Fifth. — To praise a child for meritorious conduct is as much 
the duty of a teacher as to reprove for faults. Praise, whenever 
you can do so judiciously. Censure sparingly. Seldom find 
fault. Do not scold. Never threaten. 

Believing that a boy has some good in him, and letting him 
know that you believe it, is one of the best means of putting it 
there. Such treatment will develop self-respect in children. 

Sixth. — Encourage your 2iUl^ils hy showing interest in their 
progress, and by your kindness of manner. Let them feel sorrow 
at displeasing you, but not fear at seeing you. The following 
incidents will illustrate this point : 

One day a poor boy, about eight years of age, was admitted 
into school. His chief characteristic appeared to be a stolid in- 
difference to everything. Ho seldom smiled, scarcely ever laugh- 
ed, and no other emotion changed his face. Ilis teacher regarded 
him as a case of hopeless stupidity, yet did not tell the boy so. 
In the play-ground there was a circular swing. One day the 
teacher saw this boy take hold of a rope with one hand onl\% 
and swing himself around with body nearly as straight as an ar- 
row. There must be nerve and will-power in that boy, thought 
the teacher, who praised his swinging, and noticed the first real 
ray of light in his eyes. From that day the teacher had hope for 
the boy, and the boy had regard for his teacher, and tried to do 
things to please him. He began to learn, and soon made such 
improvement that he seemed as one just awakening to a new life. 

14" 



322 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

In another school a teacher noticed that one of her pupils, •who 
had never taken much interest in her studies, and who made little 
progress in learning, couhl sing quite well. She asked the little 
girl to sing the exercise alone. She sung it well, and was com- 
mended for it. Then other pupils were asked to try to sing it 
as well as Jane did. Afterward Jane was called to sing other 
exercises alone, and made rapid improvement in singing. 

Iler teacher after a few weeks noticed that Jane was also tak- 
ing more interest in her other lessons ; that she was making much 
improvement ; and commended her for it. One day, after com- 
mending Jane for advancement in her studies, the teacher asked 
what made her take so much more interest in lier lessons than 
she formerly did. Her answer, " I feel more encouraged than I 
did," points to encourarjement as one of the means of success in 
your work as a teacher. 

Seventh. — Treat your pupils with kindness in the correction 
of their fdu Its, and thus gain their confidence and respect. Let 
them feel that you sympathize with them in those unfortunate 
deeds which result from accidents, without any wrong intention. 
The case of the boy who broke a pane of glass accidentally will 
suggest a temper of mind for dealing with similar incidents. 

During the recess one day, a little boy threw a piece of coal, 
without thinking of the window toward which be sent it. It 
struck a pane of glass and broke it. The teacher chanced to see 
the act. When the boys returned to their scats, the teacher con- 
cluded to wait awhile before alhiding to the accident. The ex- 
ercises were resumed as usual. After a while the boy who threw 
the piece of coal was requested, very kindly, to show the teacher 
his example in arithmetic. He felt the kindness of the teacher 
while standing by her, and took courage to say, in a quiet tone of 
voice, "A boy broke a window." The teacher took him gently 
by the hand, and he added, " He broke it with a piece of coal ; 
but he did not mean to do it." The teacher said, " I am very 
sorry," but showed no signs of harshness ; and the boy took 
courage to say, " I broke it ; I am very sorry." The teacher 
kissed the little boy, and commended him for telling her about 
it, then added words of admonition. 



MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 323 

That incident proved more efiectual in guarding that boy 
against similar carelessness, and was more lasfing in its influence 
toward right actions, than would have been sharp reproof before 
the class, or any infliction of corporal punishment. 

Eighth. — Do not attemjjt to govern your class by naming indi- 
vidual ji^pilsi and charging them ivith faults. Such a course 
seldom secures the desired end. Scolding for every petty offence 
does not make pupils moi*e careful to comply with your wishes, 
or to obey your commands. Remember that your pupils do not 
love continual fault-finding, or scolding, more than you did when 
you were a pupil. Try to imagine yourself the pupil, and to 
think what course would be most likely to secure your own. at- 
tention and cheerful obedience under similar circumstances, and 
let your decision guide in the treatment of your pupils. 

Ninth. — Develop a right jyublic opinion in your school. In- 
stead of giving your attention to individual pupils and single 
misdeeds, trying to correct each in detail, endeavor to deal with 
faults in such a manner as to exert an influence upon the entire 
class which will lead to right thoughts and better actions. Aim 
thus to develop the public opinion of your class in favor of the 
right, so that you may govern individual pupils through the in- 
fluence of your class. 

Suppose you have a class of young pupils, among whom are 
many careless or restless children, and you notice that they make 
a great deal of noise in taking slates from the desks, or in placing 
slates on the desks; — to tell them to make less noise, or to 
remind John, Charles, and William that they are too noisy, or 
to take their slates away from them, will not secure habits of 
handling slates quietly. But if you tell the class that some of 
the boys are always quiet in handling their slates, and that it 
would be so pleasant if all the boys would try to be quiet, then 
ask, how many -would like to try to put down and take up their 
slates quietly? The unanimous response would commit the class 
in favor of less noise. Then, by dividing your class into three or 
more sections, by their seats, and asking one section to take slates, 
and put away slates, while the others observe how quietly it is 



324: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

done, you would direct attention to the matter, so as to make it 
easy to induce each section to try to excel the otliers in lian- 
dling slates quietly. Commend the section that does best, and 
encourage each other section to excel it. 

By such or a similar plan of directing the attention of the class 
favorably to that which you desire to secure, and by appealing to 
tlie self-respect and satisfaction which accompany success through 
praiseworthy efforts, good liabits may be formed that will relieve 
the teacher of very many annoyances that usually arise in disci- 
pline. And if such plans be wisely carried out in all matters of 
discipline, the moral training pi-odnced thereby will ultimately 
place the teacher in the position of director, or leader, in matters 
of school government, and the pupils as his willing allies. The 
exceptional cases that need special attention will be few and ea- 
sily managed. 

Tenth. — Do not repeatedly tell ■pupils of their oivn faults. 
Instead of directly telling pupils of their faults and bad conduct, 
lead them to see their own misdeeds in their true light, through 
the public opinion of the class. The following incidents will il- 
lustrate this point : 

One morning in summer a little boy went to his teacher, and 
said, in substance, "Henry and I found a bird's -nest yesterday, 
on our way home from school ; it had little birds in it. Ilcnrv 
took away the nest, and left the young birds on the ground." 
The teacher expressed sorrow at the cruel act, and told the boy 
to go to his seat. 

The teacher began to think what could be done with this inci- 
dent to benefit the school and correct Henry's cruel disposition. 
Henry was a boy in whom kindness had never been developed by 
his home treatment. Domestic bliss did not abide with his par- 
ents. Henry was accustomed to the whip for every trivial of- 
fence as regularly as to his meals and sleep. One evening, after 
being put to bed, he was heard to tell his mother, in response 
to her repeated command to ''go to sleep," " I can't go to sleep ; 
you have not whipped me yet." 

Henry attended school quite regularly, but made very little 



MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 325 

progress in anything except miscliief. On the occasion of his 
cruelty to the young birds, the teacher decided to use this act so 
as to awaken in all the younger pupils feelings of kindness to- 
Avavd hirds. Accordingly, -when a class composed of children 
but little older than Henry, yet much farther advanced in their 
reading, -was called to read, the teacher selected a lesson about 
boys robbing a bird's-nest. "Without intimating why this lesson 
was chosen, Henry was requested to stand by the teacher, and 
listen to what the class read. He did not know that the teacher 
had heard of his cruel act toward the young birds. 

Henry listened to the story of robbing a bird's-nest with an 
interest unusual to him, and it soon became evident that the read- 
ing lesson was a moral mirror, in which he saw himself reflected; 
for, before the lesson was finished, he looked up to his teacher, 
and said, "I did not kill the birds." His teacher asked, "Did 
you find a bird's-nest ?" " Yes, but I did not kill the little birds," 
said Henry ; " I only threw the nest away, and left the birds on 
the ground." 

In reply to a few questions, Henry told the story about the 
finding of the bird's-nest, and his treatment of it the night be- 
fore, substantially as the little boy had told the teacher that morn- 
ing. . Then, Avithout directly reproving Henry for Avhat he did, 
an appeal was made to the class to decide whether the conduct 
of the boys, as described in the lesson read, was right or not ; 
then the class was asked if it would be right for one of them to 
do as the boy in the lesson did ; then, if it was cruel to throw 
away the nest of young birds, and leave the little ones on the 
cold ground. While the public opinion of the class was so strong 
for the right, supposed cases were presented for the opinion of 
the class as to what would be right, and all the probaTile cases 
Avere decided in favor of kindness to birds, and against cruelty. 

This single lesson proved ^effective ; neither Henry nor any 
other boy in school was known to treat birds with cruelty during 
the remainder of that term; and doubtless the feelings of kind- 
ness toward birds, which were awakened by that incident, exerted 
an influence that extended through many years. This incident 
occurred more than thirty years ago, yet that teacher remembers 



326 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

to-day the intense and earnest feeling manifested by that class; 
and such scenes do not easily fade from childhood memory. 
Similar methods may be used to correct some of the bad habits 
in your class. 

Some of the cases of bad conduct in school can be dealt Avitli 
effectively only by moral means, and these can usually be em- 
ployed best through the public opinion of the class. Instances 
of disrespectfulncss toward a teacher, or toward other persons, 
belong to this class of cases. 

One day a boy gave the principal of his school an insolent re- 
ply. All who heard it were greatly astonished; but the princi- 
pal did not exhibit anger by scolding, or threatening the boy 
with punishment. lie quickly determined to improve that op- 
portunity by teaching a valuable lesson to the entire school. 
The very calmness of his manner made a deep impression on the 
school ; and, while the pupils wondered how the disrespectful 
boy would be punished, they felt certain that such conduct would 
not be allowed to pass unnoticed. 

The hour for closing came, and school was dismissed without 
any allusion to the conduct of the boy. That night the principal 
made bis plans, to be carried out on the following day. After 
the customary opening exercises on the morning of the next day, 
the principal addressed the school substantially as follows : 

" Boys, if, while you were at play in the street before school 
opened, a gentleman who was passing the school should inquire 
the direction to the railroad station, would you tell him the way 
in a respectful manner ?" 

"Yes, sir," was the unanimous response. 
, " Suppose a common laborer, whose occupation soiled his gar- 
ments, should come along, and ask the way to Street, would 

you tell him as well as you could, or would you treat him rudely, 
telling him to go about his business?" 

" We would tell him the right way," said the boys. 

" Very good," said the principal ; " I am pleased to know that 
you have too much respect for yourselves and for others to be- 
have rudely under such circumstances. Now, suppose a man, 
very poorly clad, who was seeking work that he might earn food 



MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 327 

for his wife and children, or even one who was begging his daily 
food, should ask you a civil question, how would you treat him? 
Would you give him a civil answer?" 

" Yes, sir," responded the school. 

" That is right, boys ; I am happy to know that you believe 
it to be right to treat all persons civilly, and to answer all proper 
questions respectfully, without regard to the external appearance 
of the one who asks the question." 

Thus the principal prepared the school for the lesson he had 
planned to give. After a pause, looking carefully over the school, 
until all eyes were fixed upon liim, even those of the boy wdio 
gave him a disrespectful answer the day before, he said, in a de- 
liberate manner, with a kind but sad tone of voice, " Yesterday 
afternoon I asked a question of one of the boys of this school. 
It was a proper question for me to ask a pupil ; it was a ques- 
tion which was justly entitled to a respectful reply ; and yet I 
am very sorry to know that even one boy in this school so far 
forgot that respect which is due to his parents, which is due to 
liis teacher, and due to his school-mates, as to give liis principal 
a less civil reply than should have been given to a beggar in the 
street. I hope no boy in this school will ever again forget, under 
any circumstances, to be respectful." 

No amount of personal reproof administered to the guilty boy 
could have produced such beneficial results upon him as did that 
lesson, which also elevated the moral tone of the entire school. 

Eleventh. — Punishmenis should he adapted to offences. If a 
boy persists in annoying his companions during recesses, do not 
allow him to take a recess with the other boys ; if he abuses any 
liberty allowed him, deprive him of that liberty until he learns to 
prize it as he ought. I^ever assign a lesson as a jnmishment for 
anything except neglect to learn the lesson. Ordinary school woi-k 
should not be prescribed as a punishment for the common of- 
fences of school. School lessons should have pleasant associa- 
tions. To punish all offences in the same way will confound the 
sense of justice in children. Timid pupils require tender treat- 
ment. 



32S .MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Twelfth. — Do not tempt your piqnls to tell a falsehood. Much 
tact should be used by the tciicher in discovering which pupils 
are guilty of wrong conduct. Do not question children in such 
a manner as to tempt them to tell a falsehood through fear of 
punishment. If you are uncertain who is in fault, do not direct- 
ly accuse any one personally. Don't say, "John, I believe you 
did that," unless you know that he did. If you feel it your duty 
to make a personal accusation against a pupil, let it be done pri- 
vately with that pupil. 

Many young children possess very indefinite ideas of truth and 
falsehood. Fear often leads such children to say that which 
they know to be false. Endeavor to overcome this tendency to 
tell a lie by treating all confessions of wrong with gentleness and 
kindness, as in the case of the boy who broke the pane of glass, 
and confessed it to his teacher. Remove all temptations to false- 
liood. Lead not your jyujiUs into temptation, hut seek to deliver 
them from their evil tendencies. 

Govern your school without making the government so promi- 
nent that it is burdensome to good children. Make your govern- 
ment light by teaching the pupils to govern themselves. 

Thirteenth. — Develop the feeling of self-respect in your pupils. 
To do this most effectively, treat them with respect at all times. 
Let them feel that their good conduct is respected by yon, and 
that they can make themselves worthy of respect from all who 
know them. 

If a boy be suspected, if his feelings, tastes, and acts are treated 
Avith contempt or ridicule, he will lose respect for you, for others, 
and for himself. A boy who is continually told that he is bad 
will come to believe it, and act accordingly. 

AVhen praising a child, do it for his good actions and right mo- 
tives. Praise honest efforts, not mere ability. Praise every child 
"who strives diligently to make good use of his abilities. Take 
care that you do not develop a love of approbation into a love of 
mere flattery by giving praise when it is not deserved. 

Censure should be just, and free from bitterness. Avoid ridi- 
cule. Conceit and vanity may sometimes need to be lowered 



MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 329 

by good-luimorcd ridicule ; but this is a dangerous remedy, and 
should be seldom employed. 

Fourteenth. — Lead pup/Is to overcome idleness b// jyointbuj to 
its evils. Check idleness by appropriate privations that result 
from it. Let children understand that idle habits clothe men and 
women in rags. 

Fifteenth. — Mischief may be checked by causing ji^^P^ls to feel 
its effects vpon tlicinselvcs. When injury to property is the re- 
sult of mischief, require complete restoration by the doer of the 
mischief. 

There are many difficulties which the teacher will meet in the 
management of his pupils. One of the most troublesome to re- 
move is that of sulkiiiess. One mode of overcoming this unfort- 
unate habit is to allow the pupil's sullenness to subside by tiring 
him of his own unhappiness. By awakening bright and cheerful 
thoughts in the minds of your pupils, harmony of the feelings 
may be restored, and sulkiness overcome. Lead the reason of 
the pupils to gain control of their feelings, and thus influence the 
will to direct them in the right way. In attempting to do this, 
you must jnaJce haste slowly. 

Love of knowledye — that natural desire of the child to know 
something about everything that he sees — is one of the means of 
good discipline, and the teacher should aim to present instruction 
so as to gratify this desire. 

Ascertaining what motives may be properly used for securing 
attention, and leading children to right conduct, constitutes an 
important part of good school discipline. » 

The exam2)le of the teacher has a most powerful influence on 
the discipline of the school. The tones of voice, the language 
used, the manner of treating the pupils, the disposition, orderly 
habits, and neatness — all exert a powerful influence upon pupils. 
Children try to imitate justice, kindness, truthfulness, dignity, 
neatness, and refinement, as they see it in the daily acts of their 
teacher. 

The little girl who said, " Mother, I try to love my teacher, 
but she is so cross, and scolds so much, I cannot love her," is 



330 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

a sad criticism on too many ■svlio fail to find pleasure in their 
work. 

" I love to go to school now ; my new teacher is so kind to 
us ; I mean to do all I can to please her," is a commendation that 
all teachers should try to deserve from the children under their 
care. "Zore, Hope, and Patience'''' will enable you to enjoy the 
sunlight of happy faces. 

" The main object of moral training is to give a right direc- 
tion to the action of the moral powers, to encourage virtuous 
inclinations, sentiments, and passions, and to repress those that 
are evil. It is to cultivate habits of truthfulness, obedience, in- 
dustry, temperance, prudence, and respect for the rights of 
others, with a view to the formation of good character. 

" The great object in moral training, like that of physical and 
intellectual education, is to develop force, with a view to the 
pupil's self-action. Unless this point is gained, little is gained. 
The pupil's character is not to be one merely for holiday show, 
but for the daily duties of life ; a character which will not be the 
sport of every wind of doctrine, but one in wliich virtue — moral 
strength — is firmly embodied. Such a character can only be 
formed by making the child himself a co-operator in the process 
of its formation."* 

* Lecture on the Theory or Science of Education, by Joseph Payne. 



SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 331 



SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 

Attention" to common things, and to the principles 
employed in the construction and operations of playthings 
for children, is a most valuable means for leading them 
to form habits of intelligent observation, and cultivate 
their common-sense. The knowledge acquired by making 
observations and experiments upon common things is the 
beginning of the development of common-sense, and of 
scientific knowledge. Science is common-sense perfected. 

When a child observes the nature of a new toy, and 
makes experiments to see what can be done with it, his 
method of procedure is the same in character as that by 
which great results in science are obtained. The way to 
science is tln'ongh a knowledge of common things. 

Tlic purpose of introducing the subject of common 
things distinct from those relating specially to animals, 
plants, minerals, etc., is that thereby the attention of 
teachers may be directed to a source of very valuable 
materials which are admirably adapted for the training of 
children to gain scientific knowledge, and to understand 
facts and laws in nature that belong to the department of 
science known as physics, or natural philosophy. Toward 
the accomplishment of this purpose, the following sug- 
gestive hints are given. 

The atmosphere is tlie air surrounding tlie earth. 
We breathe it, and move about in it, but cannot see it; it 
is invisihle and trans])arent ; it has weight; it ])resses in 



332 MANUAL OF OBJECT- TEACHING. 

all directions, upward as M'ell as downward ; it is com- 
])ressible and clastic ; it exjxinds hy heat, and contracts hy 
cold; it acquires foi'ce hy heat, and also hy compression; 
it conveys sound ; things lighter than air vnll rise iq)- 
ward in it, as a cork rises upward through water, after 
being forced beneath it. 

Tliese facts can be readily ilhistrated by simple experi- 
ments with familiar things, as may be seen from the fol- 
lowing suggestions : 

Air is Invisihle and Transj)arent. — These facts will be 
understood by reminding the pupils that they see through 
air, hid cannot see it. 

Air has Weight. — The atmosphere is attracted by the 
earth with sufficient power to cause it to have weight 
equal to fifteen j^ounds on each square inch. This weight 
is observed by the force of its pressure on a surface. 

TheBoiJs Suclter. — The pressure may be illustrated by 
the boy's sucker, which is made of a circular piece of sole- 
leather, with a string fastened to its centre. When this 
piece of leather is moistened and pressed upon a smooth 
stone, so as to force all the air from between the leather 
and the stone, and the string is pulled, a vacuum is formed 
under the centre of the leather, but the pressure of the 
atmosphere causes the surrounding portions of the leather 
to adhere to the stone with considerable force. 

How Flies Wcdk on the Ceiling. — The feet of flies have 
a contrivance which acts somewhat like the boy's sucker ; 
and this enables them to walk on the ceiling. 

Hoio the Pump liaises Water. — It is owing to the fact 
that the atmosphere presses water into the space from 
which air has been exhausted that the common pump 
raises water from the well. As the air is drawn from the 
tube by the valves attached to the piston-rod, the water 
flows up to fill the i)lace. 



SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 333 

The Syphon. — The pressure of the atmosphere causes a 
fluid to flow through a syphon, while the end of the long 
branch of the syplion is lower than the end of the short 
branch. 

The upward jpressure of the atmosphere may be illus- 
trated by tilling a small tumbler with water, covering the 
top M-ith a card, placing the hand on the card and turning 
the whole upside down, then removing the hand gently. 
The card will remain firmly pressed against the tumbler 
by the atmosphere, and keep the water from flowing out. 

The external pressure of the atmosphere prevents a 
liquid from running out of a barrel which has no vent- 
liole, or place for the air to enter above the liquid. Some- 
times tea will not pour out of the teapot because the air 
cannot enter above the tea. Water will remain in a straw 
or long tube when the upper end is closed, because of the 
atmospheric pressure from below. 

The hoif s pop-gun will illustrate that air is compressi- 
ble and elastic. When the cork or wad is pushed in by 
the piston the air within is compressed into a smaller 
space, nntil the force which the air accumulates by the 
pressure becomes so great that it drives out the cork or 
wad at the opposite end with a popping noise. The noise 
is produced by the sudden expansion of the air as it leaves 
the tube. 

Other illustrations of the compressibility of air ^ and its 
power of resistance, may be made as follows: Invert an 
empty tumbler or a glass jar, placing its mouth on the 
surface of water, then let a pupil press down upon the 
jar, and try to force it into the water so that the M-a- 
ter shall fill it, and observe that the water rises a little 
higher in the glass as the pressure upon it is increased, 
and that the water inside the glass cannot be made to rise 
as hiirh as the water on the outside. This is owinir to 



334 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the presence of the air in the glass, which cannot be com- 
pressed so as to allow the water to fill the glass. 

The toy -halloon, or a bladder nearly filled vnth air, 
when exposed to heat, will illustrate the expansion of aii-, 
and the force produced by the expansion. Bv removing 
the heated toj-ball(jt>n or bladder to a cold place, it will 
be observ^ed that the air contracts by cold. If a bladder 
be blown full of air, then exposed to heat for a short time, 
the force produced by the expansion of the air within it 
will cause the bladder to explode with a loud report. 

Air Conveys Sound. — Where there is no air sound is 
not heard. Sound is produced by the vibrations of sub- 
stances. It moves through the air at the rate of about 
1100 feet in a second. It moves through water about 
four times as fast as through the air, and through a 
wall about three and one-half times as fast; through gold 
Tihowi five times as fast; through silver about seven and 
threefourth times as fast; through copper about niiie and 
tuio-third times as fast; through wood, lengthwise, about 
ten times as fast ; through iron nhowt fifteen times as fast 
as through the air. 

Light moves about 190,000 miles while sound moves 
1100 feet, so that practically from any object on the earth, 
within the range of vision, light would pass to our eyes 
instantly. The following incidents will aid in illustrating 
that sound moves much slower than light : 

Flash and Report of a Gun. — When a gun is fired at 
a distance from the observer, the flash will be seen several 
seconds before the report is heard. When the steam- 
whistle of a distant locomotive is blown, the steam will 
be seen issuing from the wdiistle some seconds before the 
sound is heard by the distant observer. 

Lightning and Thunder. — By observing the number of 
seconds that intervene between the flash of liii-htninii; and 



SCIEXCE OF COMMON TIIIXGS. 335 

the thunder — which may be ascertained by counting slow- 
ly — the distance of the thunder-cloud may be estimated 
by reckonini^ one-fifth of-a mile for each second of time. 
AVliile four or five seconds of time intervene between the 
lightning and the thunder, the cloud is too far away to 
produce any harm in the vicinity of the observer, 

Sound Conveyed by Solids. — If you place your ear at 
the end of a long timber, while some one scratches with a 
pin the other end, you can hear the scratching distinctly. 
If you place your ear against a long solid wall of brick, at 
one end of it, and let some one strike the other end of the 
wall, you will hear two reports, the first one through the 
wall, and a second one through the air. The earth also 
convej's sound. Indians understand this, and by placing 
their ears on the ground ascertain the approach of an en- 
eni}', or of a herd of buffaloes. 

These sounds are conveyed by the vibratory motions of 
the particles of the solids ; yet the solid as a whole does 
not move. The vibrations of the particles take place with- 
in sucli minute spaces that their movements are not per- 
ceptible as motion. 

A Poller and a Boiling Kettle. — If you wish to ascer- 
tain whether or not a teakettle is boiling, place one end 
of an iron poker on the lid, and the otlier end to your ear, 
and if the water in the teakettle be boiling, the kind of 
sound conducted by this iron rod will inform you. 

An echo is sound reflected. Sometimes the same sound 
is reflected two or three times, and thus produces two or 
three separate echoes. 

Ya])or arising from wet clothing is cool; for this rea- 
son pupils should not be required to sit in wet clothing at 
school, but should be allowed to move about while the 
clothing is drying. ^ 

The direction of a gentle toind may be ascertained by 



336 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

wetting one side of the hand, holding it np and turning 
it slowly until the wet side feels cool. The moisture 
evaporates faster on the side o^ the wind, and causes that 
side to feel cooler. 

A wet towel wrapped around an ice-pitcher, or a bottle 
containing any fluid, will keep it cooler than a dry towel, 
because evaporation keeps the wet towel cool. 

Water Contracts and Expands. — When hot water cools 
it contracts until it reaches a temperature of about 39°. 
As it growls colder from this point it expands. At 32° it 
freezes, and in the solid state it expands much more rap- 
idly, and with sueli force as to burst the pipe or vessel 
that contains it. 

Heat and Cold change the Yolume, hut not the Weujht. — 
Water changes in volume by heat and by cold, but does 
not change in weight by heat or by cold. A cubic inch 
of water weighs about 252 grains. When this amount 
of water is changed into steam, its volume is 1700 cubic 
inches, but its weight remains as before, 252 grains. 
When the cubic inch of M'ater is changed into ice, its 
volume is one and one -eleventh cubic inches, but its 
weight remains as before, 252 grains. It appears, there- 
fore, that neither the heat nor the cold which produce 
these changes can possess weight. 

Heat is caused by the vibratory movements of the par- 
ticles of matter. Each vibration is very rapid, backward 
and forward, within a very short space. These vibrations 
are so minute that they are scarcely perceptible as motion. 
The boy knows by experience that a metal button can be 
made hot by rubbing it on any substance; that two sticks 
can be made hot by rubbing them against each other brisk- 
ly, lie may learn by experience that two pieces of ice can 
be melted by the heat produced by rubbing them together. 

Air in Water. — The presence of air in water may be 



WATER. 337 

noticed by leaving water in a glass or pitcher until it be- 
comes warm, when numerous small bubbles appear around 
the sides, as the warmth expands the air. 

The rapid expansion of the air by heat, and its rising in 
bubbles to the surface, produces boiling. 

Salt-water requires more Heat to cause it to Boil than 
Fresh-water. — For this reason a little salt put into water 
used for cooking potatoes will make them cook sooner, 
after the water boils, because of the greater degree of 
heat required to cause salt-water to boil. 

Water Communicates Pressure i?i all Directions. — A 
small column of water, thirty feet in height, will press 
with great force upon a conjined body of water at the 
bottom of the column. If the pressure of the small col- 
umn be equal to 1000 pounds, and the body of water at 
the base be ten times the size of that in the column, tl;e 
pressure on the conlined body of water at the base will 
be 10,000 pounds in each direction. The pressure of a 
body of level water is only downward and sidewise. 

Specific Gravity. — If a substance be of tlie same weight 
as water, bulk fur bulk, it will neither sink nor swim, but 
move about in the water as if it had no weight. If a 
body weiglis ten ounces in the air, and only nine ounces 
in water, it is found that tlie bulk of water equal in size 
to the body weiglis only one ounce, and that the body is 
ten times as heavy as water ; therefore, its specific gravity 
is said to he ten. If any body is just twice as heavy as 
the same bulk of water, it has a specific gravity of two. 

The Mechanical Poioers. — The lever and its uses may 
be illustrated with a ruler, or even a pen-holder. The 
wedge may be illustrated by the blade of a knife, or by a 
piece of wood cut into the shape of the wedge. An in- 
clined plane may be illustrated by the use of a slate, or 
a book, or a piece of board; a p>ulley,hy ribbon-blocks; 

15 



338 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

the wheel and axle, by spools ; the screw, by a part of an 
anger or of a wooden screw. 

The simpler the objects for the illustrations, the greater 
will be the probability that the pupils will try to make 
experiments to illustrate the same fact at home, and thus 
gain a practical knowledge of the lesson. 

A 2yci'ir of stilts ; a seesaio' the halancing of a j^ole on 
one end, in the hand; the balancing of a ruler across the 
linger; the suspension of a common card by a string — 
each furnish practical illustrations of the importance of 
giving attention to the centre of gravity. 

Let these lessons relating to the Science of Common 
Things be conducted in a manner that Mali require the 
pupils to take jDart in the experiments and illustrations, 
and let the character be such that the pupils can make 
the same experiments at home, and the instruction will 
be thorough and practical. 

The minds of children are hungry for this sort of 
knowledge; and the teacher who fails to point out the 
way to it, and neglects to supply the opportunity for 
gratifying it, leaves undone a most important part of his 
work. 

Facts relating to philosophy and science should be pre- 
sented to children first through experiments. When the 
range of possibilities in school-room work has been reach- 
ed in this direction, other important facts, to supply fur- 
ther knowledge of the subject as a whole, may be taught 
empirical!}', especially where the pupil's lack of knowl- 
edge in other kindred departments of science prevents 
his knowing these important and needed facts through 
other means. 

KB. — For further information relative to tlic Science of Common 
Tliinc;*, tlie teaclier is referred to Hookcr''s Xatural Philosophij, ijublished 
by Harper & Brotliers ; also to the Scleuce Priiners — "Introductory" and 
"Physics" — published by D. Appleton & Co. 



SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 



SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 341 



SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The laws of human development — the order in which 
the faculties of children unfold, the subjects and processes 
most suitable to educe mental activity and development, 
and the modes by which the mind gains knowledge — are 
among the most important things to be regarded in the 
building up of a SGience of Education. By means of a 
knowledge of such a science, the methods for education 
will not be left to mere chance as to their fitness, and the 
teacher need not grope in the dark to find his true work. 
On this science the art of teaching may be founded, with 
a series of training exercises for the proper development 
of the human faculties in the several stages of progress 
from infancy to maturity, the use of which will render 
success in the work of education certain. 

Successful culture of the .mind requires a thorough 
knowledge of its powers, of their tendencies, and of the 
manner in which these are affected by external agencies. 
To attain this knowledge, we must observe the manner 
of the child's development by the aid of the sciences of 
physiology and psychology ; but our chief investigations 
must be made through psj^chology. 

Methods of education can be true only so far as they 
harmonize with the modes and conditions under which 
the mind attains knowledge. Accuracy in observing the 
modes and conditions of mental development^ and skill in 
selecting and using the appropriate means of education, 
are essential to the complete success of a teacher. But 



342 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

tlie attainment of sncli accuracy and skill requires a long 
period of time, and many years of observation and exper- 
iment on tlio part of each teacher, when left to acquire 
them without aid from the experience of others ; and dur- 
ing this time a multitude of mistakes may be made, each 
of which, sad as it might be for the teacher, would be of 
far greater injury to the pupils; hence it becomes a mat- 
ter of the greatest importance that steps be taken toward 
guiding the inexperienced teacher in the way to success- 
ful instruction, and teaching him how to determine M-hetli- 
er a method be a true or a false one — whether it will pro- 
duce the desired result in education, or lead the learner 
to hnal disappointment. 

To aid the teacher in determining the true character of 
the work to be performed, and to point out the way to 
success in the art of teaching, is my aim in presenting 
that which follows, under the title of the Science of Edu- 
cation. For the attainment of this purpose I have availed 
myself of materials from various sources of acknowledged 
authority, and woven these into such form as seemed best 
fitted to accomplish the end in view. 

In attempting to set forth such principles as underlie 
all true educational processes, it will be necessary first to 
describe some of the powers of the human mind, and to 
explain terms used in speaking of the various modes of 
m.ental activity. In endeavoring to do this, I shall not 
attempt to present a treatise on mental philosojDhy, nor 
to explain all the activities of the mind, but shall try 
rather to describe the most important forms of mental ac- 
tion, and the modes and means by which these develop 
the poVv'ers of mind, so that teachers may ohtain clearer 
ideas — Of the toorh in lohich they are engaged; 

Ofths nature of the materials with which they deal', 

Of the nneans and modes hy which their aims may he 
more completely attained. 



DEFIXITIOXS OF EDUCATIONAL TERMS. 343 



DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TERMS. 

Before proceeding to consider the powers of tlie mind, 
I will define some of the terms commonl}^ nsed in relation 
to education, and thus endeavor to make them less vague 
and uncertain in meaning and use. I will also add the 
most important iwinciples of education^ and give a few 
suggestions concerning their application to methods of 
teaching. 

Education comprehends all the influences which oper- 
ate on the human being, stimulating his faculties to action, 
forming his habits, moulding his character, and making 
him what he is.* 

Whatever helps to shape the human being, to make the 
individual what he is, or hinder him from being what he 
is not, is part of his education.f 

The general object of education is to form the man, not 
the lawyer — the man, not the physician — the man, not the 
merchant, nor the mechanic, but the true man, including 
that which is noblest and best in him. 

The Science of Education consists in a knowledge of 
those principles of psychology which account for the proc- 
esses by which the mind gains knowledge. Its founda- 
tion extends down to the laws of our being and growth. 
It embraces the principles of physical, mental, and moral 
actions, and all suitable means for the proper development 
of the human being. It is a standard hi/ ivhlc/i methods 
of education may he tested. Science tells us what a thing 

* Joseph Payne. + J. S. Mill. 



344 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

is, and wliy it is wliat it is. It treats of the nature of tlie 
thing, of its relations to otlier things, and of the laws of 
its being. 

Pedagogy, or Pedagogics, are names frequently ap- 
plied to the science of education. 

A Principle of Education is a general truth gained 
by an analytical investigation into the nature of the child 
as a thinking being. It is a law of the mind, and a rule 
of its action. 

Tlie following established fact, or law, constitutes one 
of the important principles of education : Proper exercise 
of any hodily organ, or any power of the mind, increases 
its strength. 

Teaching is one of the most important means for car- 
rying forward the work of education. It implies the 
proper guidance of the learner to the sources of knowl- 
edge, and training him in getting and properly using that 
knowledge. 

Training, in education, implies exercises of the pow- 
ers of mind in connection with things observed and facts 
taught. Its purpose is to give such facility and habits of 
action as will increase quickness in perceiving, readiness 
in remembering, accuracy in reasoning, and skill in doing. 

The Art of Teaching is the application of the laws of 
the science of education. It implies skill in teaching each 
subject by the use of proper methods, and in accordance 
with the principles of education. It is founded on the 
science of education, and the science of education is 
founded on the science of the mind. Art in teacliing 
takes the laws which are established in science and ap- 
plies them in the accomplishment of the purposes of edu- 
cation. Art is Man's work added to Nature's work. 



DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TERMS. 3^5 

A Mode of Teaching signifies the way in wliich a 
thing or subject is taught. It relates more directly to 
single actions and to single topics. It means less than 
the term "method." A mode of teaching may be ex- 
cellent, or it may be in violation of all principles of 
education. ^ 

Manner of Teaching implies individual action. It is 
the usual M-ay in which any particular teacher does the 
work. It does not relate so much to a mode of teachino; 
as to the way of using a mode or a method. 

A Method of Teaching implies an orderly use of 
modes of teaching. It is an arrangement for reaching a 
gfven point in the work by a series of acts or steps which 
it is expected will lead to that point. A method may be 
good or bad. When not founded on coi-rect principles 
of education, it may lead to results widely different frotn 
those intended by the teacher. 

A Plan of Teaching implies more than a method. It 
is an arrangement which may include the use of different 
methods for teaching one or more subjects — the methods 
being so connected as to form a chain of mutual depen- 
dencies. A plan of teaching may be limited to a single 
class, or extended to all the classes of a school. 

A System of Education implies more than a plan of 
teaching, and more than methods. It includes plans for 
providing the means of education in several subjects for 
many schools. A system of education may be good, or 
bad, or incomplete. The kind, must be determined by its 
degree of conformity to the principles of the science of 
education. 

Development implies a gradual unfolding of that 
which is hidden or unknown ; and it also relates to ex- 

15* 

9 



34G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

pansion and growth. Developinent worh, in teacliing, sig- 
nilies a laying open of the subject by degrees, so that the 
pupil shall discover the idea, the fact, or the principle to 
be learned. The development, expansion, or growth takes 
place with the idea, the thought, and the powers of the 
mind, not with the thijigs, nor the words. Ideas may be 
developed : words must be given ; they cannot be devel- 
oped. The rneamny of words can be developed by ex- 
panding the ideas which they may represent. 

Illustration signiiies a making clear, easy to jierceive 
or apprehend. In teaching, it relates to the use of things, 
pictures, and representations for exhibiting the idea, or 
fact, in a clear light, so that it may be readily understood. 
It belongs especially to the period of elementary education, 
yet it is also appropriate and valuable for advanced M'ork 
of instruction. 

Explanation signifies a making level, clearing the way, 
removing obstructions. In teaching, it relates more to 
the use of language, as a means of instruction, than to 
things and representations ; hence it is more appropriate 
as a means of teaching pupils who have acquired a pretty 
full vocabulary of words that clearly symbolize to them 
a great number and variety of ideas. It is not a suitable 
means of instruction for young pupils. 

Rote-teaching signifies causing pupils to commit to 
memory, by rote, words that represent no definite ideas 
to the mind ; learning words as the parrot learns them 
■ — by sound — M'ithout their sense. liote-teaching is usual- 
ly accomi^anied with concei;t repetitions. 



PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIOX. 347 



PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. 

I. The development of tlie mind begins with the re- 
ception of sensations ; and is carried forward by percep- 
tions, and the formation of ideas. 

IL The action and reaction between the external stim- 
ulants — material objects — and the mind's inherent pow- 
ers constitutes the process of natural education. The in- 
fluence of things upon mind, and of mind upon things, 
educates. 

III. The intellectual action and exercise in which the 
learner's education essentially consists are performed by 
himself. It is what he does for himself — his personal ex- 
periences — not that which is done for him, that educates 
him. 

IV. Ideas gained by personal experience are subjected 
by the mind to certain processes of elaboration, as classifi- 
cation, association, abstraction, generalization, judgment, 
and reasoning. Thus, ideas are incorporated with the or- 
ganic life of the learner's mind. 

V. Words are the conventional signs, the objective 
representations of ideas. Their value to the learner de- 
pends on his previous possession of the ideas they rep- 
resent. Words, without ideas, are not knowledge. There- 
fore obtain ideas first, then words to represent them. 

VI. Memory is the result of attention ; and attention 
is the concentration of all the powers of the mind on the 
matter to be learned. Tiic art of memory is the art of 
Inlying attention. Exact and concise language increases 
the power of remembering. 



348 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIKG. 

YII. The mind, in gaining knowledge for itself, at- 
tends first to the whole, then subdivides that into its 
parts, and from particular facts infers general truths. It 
discovers facts b}^ anal)'sis, but transmits them to others 
bj synthesis. The teacher should follow this natural 
order, leading the pupil to the fact by analysis, but re- 
quiring him to sliov\r by synthesis that he has gained it. 

VIII. Education is the cultivation of all the native pow- 
ers of the child by exercising them in accordance with the 
laws of his being, with a view to development and growth. 
Kepeated exercises of bodily organs give ease of action, 
and produce habits. Proper exercise of the mental j30w- 
ers give clearness of perception and certainty of knowl- 
edge. Proper exercise of any bodily organ, or mental or 
moral power, increases its strength. 

IX. Pight methods of education make the pupil an ac- 
tive doer, not a passive receiver ; make him learn directly 
from things and acts, and become his own teacher. 

X. The proper function of the teacher is that of a 
stimulator and guide of the learner'' s %oorl\ in a systematic 
building of knowledge into the mind, with a definite ob- 
ject, lie should first discover the need of the child, 
awaken in him a desire to satisfy it, then lead him to the 
source of supply, and teach him to help himself. 

XL The teacher's true work, in the process of instruc- 
tion, starts from that which is known to the learner, and 
proceeds to the kindred unknown which constitutes the 
matter to be learned. It causes that which is newly 
learned to become intimately associated with the pre- 
viously known. 

XII. Unknown objects and Avords can be illustrated 
and explained only by well-known objects and words. 
Teach unfamiliar things by the help of familiar things. 



DIKECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 349 



DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

By means of careful attention to proper directions and 
suggestions, relative to methods and principles of educa- 
tion, inexperienced teachers may secure vahiable guides 
for leading themselves — 

To use correct methods of instruction. 
To acquire skill in the art of teaching. 

Complete Fitness for Teaching implies the combi- 
nation of knowledge and experience indicated by the fol- 
lowing qualifications : 

1. A 'knowledge of the suhjects of instruction. 

2. A knoidedge of the nature of the heing to he taught. 

3. A knoidedge of the jprinci/ples of education. 

4. Skill in the use of the hest methods of teaching. 

5. Tact in the management of 2}npils. 

Mode of Procedure. — Tlie work of true teaching in- 
cludes in its processes the following important matters, 
and attention to each in its proper time and order. 

The teacher must — 

First. — Discover the condition of the pvpiVs mind, and 
its needs, as related to both its mental development and 
the subject-matter to be taught. Then aioaken inthejpu- 
2?il a desire to know that which he needs, and guide him 
in the way to gratify this desire ; and, while attending to 
these, teach him how to gain wliat is thus sought concern- 
ing the subject-matter of the lesson. 

Second. — Ascertain hoxo the different minds gain knowl- 
edge of the given subject, — which senses are chiefly used 



350 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

for the purpose, — and then conduct the exercises of in- 
struction so as to employ two or more se?ises, whenever 
possible, in order to secure the best attention and com- 
pleteness of knowledge. 

Third. — Begin the lesson with things^ or pictures, and 
facts — not with definitions or rules. Bring the object, 
or subject-matter, with suitable illustrations, into such re- 
lations with the pupil's mind that each may act on the 
other so as effectively to cause the proper exercise of 
those powers by which knowledge is gained. 

Fourth. — ]]y means of illustrations and questions lead 
the child to grasp the new idea or truth ; and, as soon as 
that is perceived, teach the word to express it, and in a 
manner that will thoroughly associate the word with the 
thought. 

Fifth. — Present the sidject-matter of the lesson in the 
p>roper order, proceeding from that which is already 
known by the learner to the most nearly related un- 
known, and lead the pupil to associate each newly-learned 
fact with what was previously known. Be careful to dis- 
tinguish between facts which are new to the pupil and 
those that are already familiar to him. 

Sixth. — Unknown things and words can he illustrated 
and explained only hj hnown things and loords. Do not 
attempt, therefore, to illustrate by the use of things not 
familiar to the pupils; nor to teach the meaning of words 
by the use of those not already well-known to them. 
Never try to illustrate that which is familiar by some- 
thing unfamiliar. 

Seventh. — Ideas must he formed in the learner'' s mind, 
and words given to represent them, before they can be 
expressed or communicated to others. Tiie child learns 
by observation, examples, and practice, not by precepts, 



DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 351 

rules, or theory. Precepts, rules, and theory aid him in 
remembering that which he learns by observation and 
practice. Provide your pupils with abundant means of 
learning by these modes, and see that sufficient attention 
is given to each. 

Eighth. — When ideas of a given suhject cannot readily 
he obtained directly through the senses, the subject-matter 
to be taught may be compared to some object or fact al- 
ready familiar to the learner by his own experience. In 
using comparisons as a means of illustrating ideas, there 
should exist a true parallelism between the matter to be 
explained and the object, fact, or incident used for the il- 
lustration ; and its application to the case in point should 
be made clearly apparent to the pupil. Do not allow 
your illustration to cover %ip the suhject, and hide the fact 
to be taught, by making the comparison or illustration too 
elaborate. 

Ninth. — Follow the dictates of nature, and proceed from 
the whole to its j^^^'^ts. Lead the child to understand 
through analysis, and to show that he knows by synthe- 
sis. Divide the difhculties of the subject into proper 
steps, and thus enable your pupils to surmount them. 
Direct attention to one thing at a time, and to each thing 
in its appropriate order. Do not attempt to keep atten- 
tion too long upon one thing or fact. 

Tenth. — litinember that activity is a characteristic of 
childhood, and that the child likes to try to do what it 
sees others do. Provide, therefore, examples of doing 
which may be imitated by the learner. In every lesson, 
where it is practicable, give the pupils something to do 
with their hands, and require them to say something about 
that which is done. Furnishing occupation that interests 
the pupils is the best means for maintaining order. 



352 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

Eleventh. — The attention of young children should l)e 
attracted, not forced, to the lesson i and tlie attention to 
a given subject shonld not become burdensome to the 
learner. Activity on the part of the teacher is one of the 
means of securing attention ; and constant employment 
of the pupils is another means. Partial attention of pu- 
pils implies partial teaching. 

Twelfth. — Proj)er Tepetitions deepen impressions. Both 
the facts and the language used to represent them are made 
secure in the memory hj giving repeated attention to each. 
Changes in the manner of directing the attention of pu- 
pils to the facts, and in the language used for describing 
them, may be made with profit to the learner; but in all 
cases let accuracy and conciseness of language aid the 
memory. Thoroughly knowing a thing is the surest 
way of remembering it. 

Thirteenth. — Do not use formal questions. Put your 
questions on each lesson in several different forms, yet 
make them definite. Avoid leading questions, such as can 
be answered by yes, or no. Shape each succeeding ques- 
tion with reference to the ansicers pjrevioushj given, and 
the point to he gained. Do not try to draw from a pupil, 
by questions, whaU-Jie has never taken in ; yet suitable 
questions may be used to lead him to discover that which 
he does not know. A lesson may be reviewed with much 
profit by requiring pupils to ask each other questions 
concerning it. 

Fourteenth. — Language is developed and cultivated hy 
using it. To use a language is to receive and express 
ideas through it. Children should be trained to hear and 
understand, and to give proof that they understand by 
expressing their thoughts in clear and accurate language. 
If you would teach much, talk but little. 



DIKECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 353 

Fifteenth. — Train your pupih to do exactly v^hat you re- 
quest them to do — no more, and no less. It will cultivate 
habits of attention; of quick and accurate understanding; 
of following directions correctly, and obeying orders full}'. 
To accomplish this important result, let attention be given 
to secure it during the exercises of reading, spelling, arith-> 
metic, writing, passing books, using slates, marching, stand- 
ing, sitting, etc., until the habit of doing thus is formed 
in all the movements of the school. Such a habit is the 
corner-stone of excellent discipline. It is the key to suc- 
cess in maintaining good order. 

Sixteenth. — A summary, or short review, shoidd end the 
lesson. During this review all illustrations and aids to 
perception should be removed, and the pupil led to look 
within his own mind for the new fact or truth taught by 
the lesson. This is an important stex3 in the development 
of mental power. 

Seventeenth. — Knoioing lohcd to teach, and Jiiiowing how 
to teach, are two very different things. Knowing what to 
teach is an attainment of hiowledge. Knowing how to 
teach is an attainment of art. Attend, therefore, both to 
the knowledge and to the art as the best means of success 
in teaching. 

Eighteenth. — Let your own life and loorJc he worthy of 
imitation hy your jmjyils. Be truthful in acts as well as 
in words. Promptness, neatness, painstaking, politeness, 
and kindness may be effectively inculcated by your deeds, 
even though your words he few. With children, thinss 
seen are mightier than things heard, and example is more 
powerful than precept. 

For more extended and explicit statements relating to 
the nature of the tilings to he taught, for a fuller exposition 
of the j^rinci])les of education, and further directions for 



35tl: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

teacJicrs, in matters pertaining to the science and art of 
education, the reader is now invited to a careful consider- 
ation of "How Nature Teaches a Child," "Elements of 
Mental Activit}"," the M'ni^d, and its " Powers of Mental 
Acquisition," its "PoAvers of Mental Reproduction," its 
"Powers of Human Reason," its "Powers of Moral Ac- 
tion," and its "Power of Willing," as treated in the fol- 
lowing pages. Proper attention to these subjects will 
lead to a clearer understanding of the true relations 
which should exist between the learner and the teacher, 
to the use of better methods of instruction, to skill in 
the art of teaching, and to more satisfactory results in 
education. 



HOW NATURE TEACHES A CHILD. 355 



HOW NATURE TEACHES A CHILD. 

"For some time duving- the early years of cliildhood Nature 
is the cbief, if not the only, teacher ; and the contrast between 
her success at that time and the success of the teacher who suc- 
ceeds her is very remarkable, and deserving of consideration. 
When we examine this process in the case of infants, we see 
Nature acting without interference, and with undeviating success. 
AVithin a few months after the child has attained some degree 
of consciousness, we find that Nature, under every disadvantage 
of body and mind, has succeeded in communicating to the infant 
mind an amount of knowledge which, when examined in detail, 
appears truly wonderful. The child has been taught to know his 
relatives and friends ; he has acquired the ability to use his limbs, 
and muscles, and organs of sense. He has become sufficiently 
familiar with the form, the color, the texture, and the names of 
a hundred articles of dress, of furniture, of food, and of amuse- 
ments, to be able readily to distinguish each ; and all of this has 
been acquired without fatigue, and with pure delight. He com- 
pares objects, as may be seen in bis choosing those things which 
please him, and rejecting those which he dislikes. And, above 
all, along with this substantial knowledge of things the child has 
been taught to understand a language and to speak it. The fact 
that all of this has been accomplished by a child of only three 
or four years of age is so common, that the mysterious principles 
which it involves are generally overlooked. We thoughtlessly 
allow them to escape observation, as if they were matters of in- 
stinct, and to be ranked with the spider's catching its prey, or 
the bird's building its nest. 

" The benefits accruing to education from successfully imitat- 
ing Nature in this department of her training process would be 
incalculable, not only in adding to the amount of knowledge com- 



35G MA^^UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

municated, but in the ease and delight wliicb tlie young would 
experience in acquiring it. The rapidity of acquisition in gaining 
knowledge, and the pleasure attending it, are greatest during the 
time that Nature is the teacher. Both the rapidity and the pleas- 
ure are generally checked by the mismanagement of those who 
supersede Nature with the processes of school instruction. The 
proof of this is found in the fact that, although a child is much 
less capable of acquiring knowledge between one and five years 
of age than he is between eight and twelve, yet the amount of 
knowledge generally derived from school exercises during the 
four latter years bears no proportion to those of the former when 
Nature alone Avas the teacher. In the one case his intellectual 
attainments were acquired with little or no fatigue, and the acqui- 
sition was a continued source of pleasure, while in the other quite 
the reverse is usually the condition."* 

l!^ow, if we could only cause the knowledge sought to 
be imparted in the school-room to glide as sweetly and 
clearly into the mind as that of Nature's teaching, we 
should not only greatly aid natural education, but get rid 
of much of the dreary endurance of school-hours, of that 
stolid lending of the ears witliout hearing, that objectless 
looking without seeing, and those repetitions of words 
without the acquisition of knowledge. 

The amusements of early cliildhood furnish instructive 
liints as to suitable means for the education of young 
children. When the child has acquired the power of 
using its hands in holding and moving objects, he soon 
makes a variety of experiments by moving those M'ithin 
his reach. If he notices a new effect by moving an ob- 
ject, he is eager to repeat it. Wlien he throws a spoon 
on the floor, and hears the jingling noise, if another spoon 
is given him he is sure to throw it down, expecting to 
hear the same noise. If a piece of wood be given liim, 
he soon finds that the same noise does not occur wlien it 

* The Philosophy of Education, by James Gall, of Edinburgh. 



now NATURE TEACHES A CHILD. 357 

is thrown down, and lie loses the desire to repeat the ex- 
periment. But, so long as the noise that pleased him is 
repeated, he takes pleasure in throwing down the object. 

If two objects be given him, only one of which will 
jiroduce a noise when thrown down, he soon finds out the 
difference, and wants only the one which produces the 
noise. This is the inductive method by which Nature 
teaches her scholars. She makes their plays their most 
instructive lessons. 

"Nature furnisbes knowledge by object-lessons, and she trains 
the active powers by making them act. She has given capabiUty 
of action, and she develops this capabihty by presenting occasions 
for its exercise. She makes her pupil learn to do by doing. 
She gives liim no grammar of seeing, hearing, and feeling; she 
gives no compendiums of abstract principles. Action — action is 
her maxim of training ; and things — things are the objects of licr 
lessons. She adopts much repetition in her teaching, in order that 
the difficulty may become easy, and ' use become second nature.' 
In physical training, ' use legs and have legs ' is one of her max- 
ims, and she acts analogously in regard to mental and moral 
training. Slie teaches quictl}'. Sbe docs not continually inter- 
rupt her pupil, even when he blunders, by outcries and objurga- 
tions. She bides her time ; and, by prompting him to continued 
action, and inducing him to think about what he is doing, and 
correct his errors himself, makes his very blunders fruitful in in- 
struction. She does not anxiously intervene to prevent the con- 
sequences of his actions ; she allows him to experience them, that 
he may learn prudence; sometimes even letting him burn his 
fingers, that he may gain at once a significant lesson in physics, 
and also the moral lesson involved in the ministry of pain. * * * 

" Nature makes her pupil teach himself. She does not explain 
the difference between liard and soft objects — she says. Feel 
them ; between this fact and that sbe says. Place them side by 
side and mark the difference yourself ; and generally she says to 
her pupil, Don't ask me to tell you anything that you can find 
out for yourself. * * * 



358 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

" She mingles lessons in physics, langna2;c, morality all together. 
Her main business seems to be the training of faculty; and she 
subordinates to this the orderly acquisition of knowledge by her 
pupils."* 

The first step of Xature's process, in the cultivation of 
tlic infant niind, is the voluntary exercise of the powers 
of mental acquisition. A child may be surrounded with 
a thousand objects, and these may act on the organs of 
sense, but xmtil the mind voluntarily occupies itself loith 
one or more of these sensations there can he no mental ac- 
quisition or culture. Education, then, does not depend 
upon the number of objects, or the multitude of subjects 
which may be employed by the teacher, but upon those 
only which tlie mind really looks at, observes, and thinks 
about. The voluntary exercise of the mind lies at the he- 
ginning of all mental development and acguisition. Im- 
pressions may be received, and these may be blended into 
ideas, but these ideas must also be symbolized with words, 
and associations formed, and the ideas repeated or thought 
over, by means of the words representing them, in order 
to produce development and growth in knowledge. 

It is the exercise of the pupiTs own mind that consti- 
tutes his acts of learning. Learning is self-teaching. Tlie 
mental acts by which knowledge is gained are acts of the 
pupil. The teacher cannot think for the pupil any more 
than he can sleep or eat for him. He can only induce, 
stimulate, and awaken thoughts and desires that will lead 
the pupil to acquire knowledge. 

* lectures on the Science and Art of Education^ \>y Joseph Payne, lute Pro- 
fessor in the College of Preceptors, London. 



ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 359 



ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 

The external world acts upon, and stimnlates the mind 
to act tlironglijthe nervons system. Mind and matter act, 
and each are acted upon by the other. The action of 
mind and matter produces changes. Action and change 
constitute motion. Heat, light, color, and sound are pro- 
duced by motion. Touch and feeling, taste and smell, 
are also dependent upon motion. The different varieties 
of motion which produce these various phenomena expe- 
rienced by our minds exist in the form of changes, or vi- 
brations, among the atoms of matter. These several varie- 
ties of vibrations, it is believed, are transmitted to the dif- 
ferent senses in the form of waves, or inidulations. 

The vibrations which produce sound are communicated 
to the sense of hearing by undulations of the atmosjyhere. 
Vibrations produce heat ; and light and color are trans- 
mitted to the senses of feeling and seeing by undulations 
of ether — a medium believed to pervade all space, includ- 
ing the interior of all substances. The difference between 
sounds is caused by the difference in the rapidity of the vi- 
brations and the length of the air-waves. The differences 
in heat, light, and colors depend upon the rapidity of the 
\dbration8 that produce them, and, with light and colors, 
on the length of tlie ethereal undulations also. 

The sense of hearing can be acted upon only within a 
certain range of air- vibrations. If these are less rapid 
than sixteen in a second, the sound will be too low for 
the human ear to perceive it. If the vibrations are more 
rapid than about 40,000 per second, the sound becomes 



360 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

too liigli for perception by liiiman ears. It is possible, 
liowever, that some animals may possess powers of per- 
ceiving lower sounds than any which man hears; while 
it is probable that there are others with such acute senses 
that they can hear sounds so high that we have no knowl- 
edge of their existence. 

The vibrations which produce red light are slower, and 
the ethereal undulations are larger, than those which pro- 
duce ^;?/?;/^/(?. In red light 39,000 waves occ^ipy but one 
inch of space, while the number of vibrations is at least 
475,000,000,000,000 per second. In ;purple light 57,500 
waves occupy one inch of space, and the number of vibra- 
tions per second is 700,000,000,000,000. 

Sound travels through the atmosphere at the rate of 
W{s^ feet per second. Light travels at the rate of 192,000 
miles per second, or more than 900,000 times faster than 
sound. Thus, it may readily be seen that the two promi- 
nent modifying conditions in motion, which produce the 
several sensations manifested to the human mind, are 
time and space. Both of these are generated by motion. 
Time is the internal measure of motion, and space is the 
measure of motion externally. 

It has already been shown that two classes of sensations 
— those which act through the senses of hearing and see- 
ing — are the result of motion. Turning now to chemical 
effects, we find that motion of the jparticles of matter 
produces the results observed by the senses of taste and 
smell. Thus we perceive that motion is the common 
ground on which tnind and the material world can meet. 
It is the universal medium of their communion. 

How Ideas are Formed. — The material world is 
known to sense simply by virtue of, and in relation to, 
the motion of its particles. These motions are continued 
from the organs of sense, by the nervous system, to the 



ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 301 

mind, wliicli in its turn reacts upon the material world, 
tlirougli the nerves of motion, to ascertain the cause of 
the sensations, and thus come perceptions ; while througli 
and by the aid of perceptions concepts are formed. These 
are the mental 7'esiduaf'' which are produced in the mind, 
through the activities of the different senses, from ob- 
jects that comes before it. These residua spontaneously 
blend together, forming an idea of the object. This is 
the beginning of intelligence. 

When an ordinary object is placed before us, the lead- 
ing features that first arrest the attention of the mind are 
those of which impressions may be taken in through the 
sense of sight, as color, shape, size, materials, etc., because 
this sense is tiie most intellectual, and through experience 
attains the ability of receiving a greater amount and 
variety of information from an object than either of the 
other senses. Tlie sense of touch gives us impressions 
of hardness and smoothness, while impressions of sound, 
scent, and taste are each convej^ed through their respective 
organs. The mind may receive sensations and informa- 
tion from several senses at the same time. 

Suppose the object before the mind to be an orange : 
all the concepts derived from its shape, color, size, smooth- 
ness, and its qualities of scent, taste, etc., or the various 
mental residua of this object, which are left in the mind 
by means of each separate sense, would unite, unconscious- 
ly, in forming the idea of an orange. It is by this process 
of blending impressions that ideas are formed out of sim- 
ple concepts, or mental impressions. 

* The term "residua" is not used Jiere in any materialistic sense, nor as 
a representative of any system of mental i)liilosopli}% but simply as a stjin- 
bol for accumulated "concepts," or thounlits, or the simplest elements of 
knowledge which the mind receives through the senses, or of that mental 
operation, by wliatever term it may be known, or whatever may be its modes 
of action, which is recognized :xs the accumulation of that which becomes 
our knowledge of the external world — tliat which i.v, or becomes, or pro- 
duces thoughts. 

16 



362 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

Generalization, — These same laws, bj wliicli various 
impressions blend together in forming ideas, also govern 
the union of similar ideas in the formation of general 
ones. We may trace this blending process from a very 
early period of childhood, and observe the combinations 
becoming larger and larger in proportion as the mind 
grows up toward maturity. Here, then, is the beginning 
of that mental process and that operation of the mind 
which may be called generalization. It is through these 
natural classifications, based upon the likeness and unWke- 
ness of things, that knowledge grows from the concrete 
to the abstract. Thus, the law of similarity not only lies 
at the basis of those processes by which the mental resid- 
ua are blended into ideas, but also of those simple classifi- 
cations by which ideas are moulded into masses, and gen- 
eralizations established. By extending the classitication 
of ideas, by likeness and unlikeness, to the formation of 
groups of ideas, and establishing a connection between 
them by associating these groups together, we have the 
origin of that kind of knowledge which is called e.qje- 
rience. 

As the child becomes older, the range of its experience 
enlarges, the elements of perception are more readily 
formed into simple ideas, and these simple ideas tend 
more and more to merge into general ones. Even words, 
which are symbols of our generalized ideas, represent to 
the child a simpler combination of ideas than the same 
words do to one of wider experience. Suppose the word 
river be heard. To the child it might convey only an 
idea of a single stream which he had seen ; but to the 
adult of large experience it would convey an indefinite 
number of riner-ideas, which liad formed in his mind out 
of the past observations made by himself and others, all 
of which now have blended into a more comprehensive 
or general form, under the single word river. 



ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 363 

Not only are our ideas of material objects formed by 
the blending of impressions obtained through several 
senses, but ideas of abstract terms, as love, hatred, pity, 
anger, virtue, etc., are formed in the same way ; they take 
their origin primarily from certain manifestations which 
we see in others, or are conscious of in ourselves. Al- 
tliough these manifestations are various, yet in the course 
of our experience the impressions which they leave blend 
together, so as to form combinations that represent to the 
mind the ideas expressed by the terms love, hate, pity, 
anger, virtue, etc. Since the impressions which unite in 
the formation of these several ideas differ according to 
the mental experiences of each individual, it must not be 
supposed that the words which stand as symbols for these 
ideas will convey them with exactly the same force and 
clearness to each mind. 

The fulness, clearness, and accuracy of the ideas re- 
ceived from words by each person depend upon the 
number of " concepts," or the amount of mental residua 
which those words symbolize to each. "Words signify 
much or little to each one of us, as our mental accumu- 
lations associated with those words are many or few. 



3G4 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



MAINE'S NATURE AND POWERS. 

Man possesses two widely different natures : one is 
physical, the other sjnritual. As a physical being, he is 
composed of ho7ies, or a frame ; of muscles, or organs of 
motion; of nerves and (janglia, or organs of sensation. 
As a spiritual being, man is composed of a mind, which 
acts through specific bodily organs in all its intercourse 
with the material world. 

The action of the physical nature may be called animal 
power; the action of the spiritual nature may be called 
mental power. We are conscious of the operations of both 
of these powers, and may control, or iniinence, their ac- 
tion by our will. But there is a third power, which be- 
longs chiefly to our physical nature, that is wholly beyond 
both our consciousness and our control. This is the Vital 
Power, or that force by which the physical system is built 
up and kept in repair, and the processes of animal life 
carried on. This power is common also to the entire 
animal and vegetable world. 

THE MIND. 

The onind is that Mfludi feels, and t/dnls, and hioios. 
Its organs are the hrain and nerves. The mind is spirit- 
ual ; the brain and nerves are material. The mind is said 
to possess various faculties; but these denote only the 
different modes in which its power is manifested. 

The Senses. — The senses are those powers by which 
the mind holds communication with the external world. 



MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 3G5 

Their various modes of manifestation are called taste^ 
smell, a/'f/ht, hearing, feeling, and the muscular sense. 
Their special hodily organs are the tongue, the nose, the 
eye, the ear, the sVin, and the muscles. The means of 
connection and communication between these external 
organs of sense and the mind are the nerves. 

Nerves. — Each organ of sense has its peculiar nerve 
connecting it with the brain, the chief organ of the mind. 
To the anatomist these nerves all appear alike, when sep- 
arated from the body. But each is affected in its own pe- 
culiar -way : one by light, another by sound, another by 
smell, another by touch, another by taste. Neither of 
them is affected by that which produces sensation in the 
other. Sound does not affect the nerve of sight; light 
does not affect the nerve of hearing ; taste does not affect 
the nerve of smell, and so on. But precisely Jww the 
mind acts througli the brain and nerves, and the various 
organs of sensation, no man can fully explain. However, 
that the mind possesses native tendencies to act through 
its several organs of sense, is as evident as that the life- 
principle of seeds contains the natural tendency to devel- 
op into a plant after its own hind. But both the mind 
and the life -principle need the appropriate conditions, 
which can be supplied by the influences of external ob- 
jects, to bring forth their development. 

Sensations. — Sensations arc those brief influences, or 
iuipressions, which external objects produce upon the 
mind through its special bodily organs oi sense. A sen- 
sation lasts only during the time that its cause acts \\\^o\\ 
the organ of sense. It is a fundamental element of 
knowledge. 

Perception and Perceptiveness. — By means of the 
nerves such a communication exists between the outward 
organs of sense and the mind that notice is taken of the 



oGG MiVNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

sensations. This notice, or attention, is ca\\cQ\ po'ception. 
It is a manifestation oi percejytlveness. 

Perceptiveness is that power, or natural tendency of tlie 
mind, to act in perceivins^ whenever the occasion for ac- 
tion occurs. Percejytion is the action of j!;<?r(?(?j9^iv6n^s5. 
When its action ceases, perception ceases ; but ])erce])tive- 
ness is a permanent power, or tendency of the mind, which 
is always ready to act whenever the appropriate excite- 
ment affects it. 

Perception constitutes the first mental activity in the 
process of gaining knowledge. 

Conception. — "When the object which caused the ac- 
tion of perceptiveness is removed, mere perception ceases; 
but, during the presence of the object, and the activity 
of the perceptive poAver, the mind receives a permanent 
impression, or image, or knowledge of it. This image, or 
knowledge, is sometimes called a concept. Such an im- 
pression, or image, might be termed a simple element of 
hnoivleclge, or a mental residua;^ for it is tliese elements 
of knowledge, or impressions, which accumulate and en- 
ter into the various forms and combinations that make 
up those attainments which are commonly understood by 
knowledge of an object. That mental power which takes 
tlie impression, or gains these elements of knowledge of 
the object in such a manner that the image, or knowledge, 
may be retained and recalled without the presence of the 
object, is often called conception. 

This mental power of receiving and retaining the ele- 
ments of knowledge of objects, whether called conception^ 
or intuition., or apprehension, or p>(^^'ceptive facidties, or 
by some other name, is i\\e primary hiowledge-gatherer of 
the mind. It collects elements of knowledge that aid in 
other mental operations. It furnishes the means of rec- 

* Sec note on page 361. 



MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 3G7 

og-nizing the same objects wlien tliey come again under 
notice. 

*' We arc foUowin;^ the plainest dictates of consciousness, we 
avoid a thousand difficulties, and we get a solid ground on wliich 
to rest and build, wlien we maintain that the mind in its first ex- 
ercises acquires knowledge ; not, indeed, scientific, or arranged ; 
not of qualities of objects and classes of objects, but still knowl- 
edge — the knowledge of things presenting themselves, and as 
they present themselves ; which knowledge, individual and con- 
crete, is the foundation of all other knowledge — abstract, general, 
and deductive. In particular, the mind is so constituted as to at- 
tain a knowledge of body or of material objects. It is through 
the bodily organism that the intelligence of man attains its 
knowledge of all material objects beyond. This is true of the 
infant mind; it is true also of the mature mind."* 

ORGANS OF SENSE. 

The several organs of sense are the means by which 
the mind gains the elements of knowledge from various 
objects. It is proper, therefore, to inquire what are the 
original elements of knowledge wliich the mind receives 
through each of these organs of sense, that the manner of 
the mind's activity may be so well understood as to ena- 
ble teachers readily to devise suitable exercises for in- 
creasing its facilities of action through each of these 
organs. 

Seeing. — Througli tlie organs of sight objects are per- 
ceived chiefly by means of their form and color; but it 
is experience, or the combined elements of knowledge 
derived througli the senses of sight, touch, and the mus- 
cular sense, and sometimes of licaring also, which enables 
the mind to attain definite knowledge of the form, size, 
and distance of objects. An infant has perfect eyes, yet 

* Intuitions of the Mind, by Dr. McCosh. 



368 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

it will try to reach distant objects as well as those near 
it, apparently liaving no idea that all objects are not equal- 
ly near until it has learned to the contrary by its own ex- 
perience. Neither does it distinguish one form or color 
from another until it has learned to do so through expe- 
rience. 

Children are born with all the senses, hut facility in the 
iise of each inust Ije acquired. During infancy the earliest 
attainments in knowledge are the results of experience ; 
so, also, does the mind add to its stock of knowledge by 
its experience during all subsequent stages of learning. 
It is exercise, practice, experience that develops mental 
powers as well as the physical powers. Whatever exer- 
cises give to the mind greater facility of action through 
its several organs of sense will increase its power and 
extend its knowledge. Hence the importance of giving 
special attention, during early steps of education, to appro- 
priate means for extending the experience of the mental 
powers by supplying suitable exercises for these organs 
of sense. 

The sense of sight may be cultivated by observing the 
physical properties of objects, such as form, color, num- 
ber, surface, size, position, distance, motion, rest, and solid- 
ity, and their various combinations and uses. Among the 
objects appropriate for this purpose are the utensils and 
tools for the house, farm, or shop, furniture, machinery, 
pictures, models, trees, leaves, flowers, birds, quadrupeds, 
insects, shells, pebbles, and occupations, and the various 
objects of nature and art. Although somewhat familiar 
to children, by casually seeing them, these several objects 
may be so employed by the teacher as to arrest their vol- 
atile attention, and win them to habits of close and minute 
observation^ and lead them to acquire the power of ready 
and accurate description. 

The eye is par excellence the intellectual sense. Light is 



MAN'S NATURE AND FOWLERS. 3G9 

the symbol by whicli we most naturally represent knowl- 
edge, and to see a thing is used as an equivalent for nn- 
derstanding it. Sight is of far greater iuiportance in in- 
tellectual education than hearing, yet the latter is com- 
monly made the principal medium of school instruction, 
notwithstanding it is comparatively of much less value 
than the former. 

Hearing. — The mind, throngh its organ of hearing, 
perceives sounds. At first, to the young child, those 
sonnds appear to exist within the organ affected — the ear. 
At length experience teaches that it proceeds from a body 
without, and further experience teaches the sources of 
the different sounds ; and by this means the child learns 
to know certain objects by their sounds. Subsequent ob- 
servation enables him to recognize the various character- 
istics of sound, and thus to feel similar emotions upon the 
recurrence of the same sounds. 

Hearing is cultivated by distinguishing sounds of va- 
rious kinds, as those produced by bells and other sonorous 
objects, or by different animals, or by the human voice in 
conversation, elocution, and music. Training children in 
liabits of correct enunciation of words, and in the distinct 
utterance of the elementary sounds of language, singly 
and in combinations, will aid materially in the cultivation 
of the sense of hearing. 

While sight is naturally associated with the intellect, 
hearing is more nearly allied to the feelings. Tones of 
voice betoken emotions which no words can express. 
AVords are but sounds as they strike the ear, yet what 
power they possess in moulding, recalling, and stimulating 
our ideas ! The sweetest delights of music, the richest 
charms of society, the various tones of the human voice 
in expressions of love, joy, sorrow, anger, remorse, and 
fear — all indicate developments of the mind through the 



370 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

sense of hecmlng. All of these conditions and experiences 
become possible by means of the air that surrounds us, 
and the susceptibility of cultivated organs of hearing. 
And, notwithstanding all this, the exercises of the school- 
room too seldom have any definite reference to training 
this sense of hearing in habits of accuracy, acuteness, and 
delicacy of perception. Some success is attained in cul- 
tivating the singing voice in smoothness and sweetness, 
but too little is done toward cultivating sweetness and 
richness of the spealdng voice, as used in conversation, 
reading, etc. 

As illustrations of the great degree of cultivation to 
which the organs of hearing may be brought, and the wide 
range for training both the ear and tlie human voice, 
through the development of this sense, we present the 
following statements : 

Probably the lowest sound which the human ear can perceive 
is produced by about sixteen vibrations per second. The lowest 
note by the open organ-pipe, thirty-two feet long, is formed by 
tldrtij-two vibrations of ah" in a second. The highest jmisicul 
note which Ccan be produced is supposed to be formed by about 
5000 vibrations per second. 

In the common seven-octave piano the lowest note of the bass 
(A) contains about twenty-seven vibrations per second, and the 
highest note of the treble about 3500 vibrations in a second. The 
musical ear is able to discriminate innumerable varieties and com- 
binations of vibrations lying between these extremes. But what 
may be said of the extent and acuteness of those cultivated organs 
of hearing which enables the leader of a large orchestra, where the 
number and variety of the vibrations are such as to entirely baf- 
fle their computation by arithmetic, to detect a single note or 
part of a vibration out of tune or time, and even to point out the 
offender ! 

The range of human hcarinr/, between the lowest sound that 
is perceived by the car, or even the lowest note of the organ, and 



MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 371 

the highest known cry of itisects, which is supposed to be formed 
by about 40,000 vibrations per second, includes about ten oc- 
taves. The compass of the human voice, from the lowest note of 
the bass or male voice, which is produced by about sixti/ vibra- 
tions per second, to the highest note of the soprano, which is 
composed of about 1044 vibrations per second, is within four 
octaves. The compass of good, common voices is within two oc- 
taves ; very few extend so far as three. Madame Catalani's voice, 
it is said, embraced three and a half octaves. 

" Every musical instrument, every animal, every object in nat- 
ure has its peculiar quality of voice. Where the sound is pro- 
duced by a living agent, it is again further modified by the cir- 
cumstances of skill in the performer, and by the sentiment under 
which the tones are produced. By this variety in note and qual- 
ity the practised ear is enabled not only to distinguish the origi- 
nating cause of a sound, but to determine the sentiment which 
called it forth." 

Knowing that such results are possible from developing 
the sense of hearing, also that mncli depends npon its 
power in learning to read with clearness and beauty of 
expression, and that it contributes largely to the cultiva- 
tion and richness of the human voice, thus adding to the 
charms of conversation, the importance of giving special 
attention to training this sense in habits of acuteness of 
hearing, accuracy in distinguishing tones, atid to training 
the voice in producing the tones with facility, becomes so 
apparent that it can hardly receive too much attention in 
the exercises of school. 

Feeling or Touch. — " The organ of touch consists of 
the fine extremities of the nerves distributed over the 
whole surface of the body, and protected by the epider- 
mis, or outer skin." The skin is, therefore, commonly 
called the organ of touch. Its greatest power is centred 
in the tips of the fingers. The sensation of feeling is 
chiefly dependent upon temperature. 



372 MANUAL OF OliJECT-TEACHING. 

At first thought it may seem of little importance to 
cultivate the sense of touch ; but if we consider tlie many 
arts and professions which require delicate sensitiveness 
and accuracy of touch, we sliall find that its culture is a 
matter worthy of much attention. 

This sense may be cultivated by perceiving such prop- 
erties of bodies as hardness, softness, smoothness, rough- 
ness, heat, cold, and all those minute sensations which 
come to us through the tips of the fingers. 

Muscular Sense. — That which is known as the mus- 
cular sense is intimately connected with feeling, and is 
the peculiar manifestation of the sense of touch which 
takes cognizance of resistance, and enables the mind to 
obtain ideas of size, distance, position, form, and weight. 

The cultivation of the muscular sense is important, not 
only because this is the organ of force, but because it is 
also necessary to bring the muscles nnder the complete 
control of the mind, so that their movements may be made 
with facility and precision, and thus contribute to skill of 
workmanship and manual execution in any trade, art, or 
occupation. It may be cultivated by observing those sen- 
sations which arise from resistance and j!>?'(?6'6'?«v, such as 
weight, strength, toughness, and elasticity, or from a push, 
a prick, or a blow. 

Smelling. — Through the organs of smell odors are per- 
ceived; but at first the knowledge of the odor does nut 
extend outside of the part affected — the nostrils. Expe- 
rience teaches the child that there is an object beyond 
the nose from which the smell proceeds. Further obser- 
vations teach the child to connect particular odors with 
particular objects, so that at length the mind comes to 
recognize objects by their odors through the sense of 
smell alone. 



M^VX'S NATURE AND POWERS. 373 

The sense of smell ni;i_y be so edncated as to become 
an important aid in the preservation of life and health. 
Dr. South wood Smith says : " If the poisonous exhalations 
in the atmosphere could be seen rising in snakish spirals 
from sewers, crawling along damp alleys, and entering 
our dwellings, we should fear to walk along our streets." 

The sense of smell may be so trained as to distin- 
guish between smells that are simply disagreeable and 
those that indicate miasma and disease. Such a cultiva- 
tion of this sense would become an excellent means of 
security against many forms of disease. 

Tasting. — The power to distinguish the qualities of 
sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and saltness we call the 
sense of taste. The tongue is the principal organ of this 
sense ; taste is its function ; savor is the general sensation 
produced. Taste is the most easily changed of all our 
senses. It will accommodate itself to almost anything; 
therefore it requires, more than any other sense, the con- 
stant guidance of reason. This fact should be impressed 
upon the minds of the young, and they should be led to 
cultivate a desire for those kinds of foods and drinks 
which are known to be conducive to health, and to in- 
crease a dislike for those things which, notwithstanding 
they may become ]ileasant to the taste, are nevertheless 
known to be injurious to health. 

The senses of smell and of taste contribute a far less 
amount of materials toward intellectual education than 
those of seeing, hearing, and feeling. The cause of this 
exists in the fact that only the faintest impressions of 
odors and tastes can be recalled by the mind, when the 
objects are absent to which these qualities belong. 

"It is not quite certain that we can think of even tlic most 
pungent tastes and smells entirely abstracted from the visible ac- 



374 



MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 



companiments of these sensations. Cayenne pepper affects the 
tongue much more vividly than its bright color does the eye; but 
in attempting to think of this acrid condiment, its visible appear- 
ance prevails entirely over the feeble traces left upon the mind by 
the taste, so that one can mentally see it much sooner than men- 
tally taste it."* 

Those impressions tliat come to us throngli the senses 
wliich are most nearly allied to our physical being can 
be but imperfectly recalled in the absence of the objects 
which produce them ; while those of a more intellectnal 
character remain in the mind, and may be recalled, with- 
out the presence of their several objects, with a vividness 
almost equalling reality. 

CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE GAINED BY THE 

SENSES. 

The following tabular classification will show at a glance the 
several bodily organs of sense, their respective sensations, and the 
chief kinds of knowledge that are obtained through the instru- 
mentality of each sense :f 



Organs of Sense. 


Names of Sensations. 


Kinds of Knowledge Gained tlirou(;h each of the Senses. 


Eye 

Eur 

Skin ) 

Fingers.. ) 

Muscles 

Nose 

Tongue 


Seeing — 

Hearing. . 

Touch... 
Feeling .. 

Muscular. 

Smelling. 

Tasting . . 


■1 

( 
"I 

J 


Light, color, lustre, form, numljer, size, sur- 
face, solidity, position, distance, motion, 

rest. 


Sound and its qualities, speech, music, di- 
rection, distance. 


Softness, hardness, smoothness, roughness, 
heat, cold. 


Resistance, pressure, weight, toughness, 
elasticity, force, size, position, distance, 
direction. 


Odor, fragrance, etc. 


Sweetness, bitterness, saltness, savoriness, 
acidity, astriugency, pungency, flavors, 
etc. 



* Ifofiie Education, by Isaac Tayloi-. 

t See statements concerning the orfjanx of sense — seeing, hearing, feeling or 
tov^hf muscular sense, smelling, tasting — iu the preceding pages. 



DEVELOPING THE POWERS OF ML\D. 375 



DEVELOriNG THE POWERS OF MIND. 

Cultivating Perceptiveness. — This faculty, or mental 
power, depends for its development and strength npon the 
activity and acuteness of the several senses. Whatever 
will render the perceptions througli the eye more clear, 
keen, and certain, and those througli the ear more acute 
and quick, Avill greatly increase the intellectual strength 
of the faculty of perceptiveness. As a clear, strong, and 
ileal thy sensation is indispensable to a dL\&\\x\Q,t 2)erce2)tion, 
so are clear, forcible, and true jpercejjtions necessary to 
accuracy and clearness of concej)tions and the successful 
acquisition of correct knowledge. 

A child, M'liile watching the different objects around 
it, observing their forms, colors, number, and sounds, and 
examining their structures, is emploj-ed in a work in 
which it should be encouraged as much as possible, since 
it is by such means that the powers of perception and 
conception are cultivated, and valuable materials of knowl- 
edge added to the mind. Therefore, to cultivate this 
power oi percepti^eiiess in a right manner, means should 
be devised for just such exercises as will attract the at- 
tention of the perceptive powers, and lead to careful ob- 
servation of properties and qualities of objects. This 
may be accouiplished by placing before children objects 
that interest them and excite their curiosity, and by lead- 
ing them to observe more carefully, and minutely, and 
systematically the shape, color, size, qualities, and uses 
of common objects. 

Since the elements of our knowledge of the exter- 
nal world are acquired, in the first instance, through the 



37G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

organs of sense, it becomes highly important tliat mncli 
attention shonld be given to their training during the el- 
ementary steps of education. Yet this important -work, 
\vhich lies at the very threshold of all sound education, is 
commonly neglected in the plans of school instruction, or 
left in the hands of unskilful and inexperienced teachers. 

"The organs of sense are the very gate-ways by which knowl- 
edge must enter the mind ; but if tliese gate-ways are only par- 
tially opened, or encumbered and blocked up, knowledge must 
come through them with difficulty, and often with an aspect dis- 
toi'tcd by the passage. 

" I would recommend tliat the organs of sense should be care- 
fully tested, during the preliminary steps of education, to ascer- 
tain whether they severally discharge their functions perfectly. 
Organic defects are more common than many suppose; and they 
often remain undetected, even by mothers, until the period of ac- 
quisitiveness has passed away. The child, at this early age, has 
no means of discovering its own organic deficiency; it has alwavs 
seen things in a haze, or heard sounds confusedly, and it takes 
these sensations as the natural and regular effects of their several 
causes ; it has no dilferent standard of comparison, for reason is 
not yet sufficiently developed to effect that subtle comparison 
with the sensations and perceptions of other children which 
miglit lead to a consciousness of inferior perceptions and con- 
ceptions. 

" Many children are deemed stupid when they are simply shut 
in from" the true comprehension of things. There may be a pow- 
erful intellect behind a defective organization. If a child be a 
little deaf, so that the words of the teacher reach the mind in 
truncated and scarcely articulate sounds, there is nothing more 
natural than that a child should mistake their meaning, and give 
a wrong answer. The mischief in too many cases is that this 
misapprehension is attributed to dulness or obstinacy, and that 
the child is punished in some manner for what no intellectual 
brightness or industry can remedy. Now, a child slightly deaf 
can hardly profit by the instruction of the teacher without spe- 



DEYELOPIXG THE TOWERS OF MIND. 377 

• 

cial attention, and it is, therefore, frequently regarded as dull and 
sulky. It mistakes his orders, and is punished for disobedience; 
it hears nothing of his affectionate tones, does not therefore re- 
spond, and is set down as sullen and unlovable. In like manner 
a near-sighted child or a long-sighted child is frequently reproved 
for inattention, although the mind may be struggling to force its 
Avay through the obstructed channels of vision. Even where the 
teacher pities the child's deficiency, and forbears to punish it, it 
is too frequently allowed to pass out of view as a natural defect 
of the mind, and therefore irremediable. The evils that result 
from compelling the mind to work without attention to these 
imperfect instruments can hardly be exaggerated. 

" AYherc defects are discovered they may be partly overcome, 
if not entirely removed, by strengthening the association between 
the defective senses and those that are not defective. The or- 
gans may be trained, by judicious exercise, to a far higher degree 
of accuracy and power than they possess in the uncultured state. 
If all disturbing and vitiating causes be removed from the clian- 
nels through which knowledge is derived, it must flow in upon 
the mind in a fuller and purer stream when the source that sup- 
plies it is abundant. 

" Material objects and sensible events should constitute the 
chief lessons of childhood. The knowledge a child acquires by 
the exercise of his own senses penetrates the intellect more deep- 
ly and pervades it more completely than any other; for it is the 
impression which Xature herself makes upon the mind by direct 
contact, wdiilst all other media of instruction are but representa- 
tions, more or less imperfect, of nature. The originals and types 
of all erudition must be thus stored up by direct perception, for 
■without it words could have no significance. 

"A fine exercise for perceptiveness, and for making distinct 
perception a habit, is to take pupils to parks, gardens, groves, 
workshops, manufactories, etc., and afterward to get them to 
write out descriptions of all they saw and heard that came to 
their knowledge through each or all the oi-gans of sense."* 

* Arranged from Human Culture, by M. A. Garvey. 



378 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

• 

In exercises of this kind the younger pupils might be 
requested to mention the names of the objects which 
they saw ; to describe their form, color, size, position, and 
uses ; to state what sounds were heard ; whether the at- 
mosphere was fresh or unpleasant; what refreshments, 
fruits, etc., were eaten ; whether the weather was warm 
or cold ; whether the distance was long or short, etc. Of 
course these descriptions would be very imperfect at first, 
but practice would soon give the pupils such powers of 
observation and description as would lead to the very 
best kind of education. 



POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITION. 379 



POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITION. 

Their Cultivation. — The various mental powers by 
which the elements of knowledge are gained and ideas 
formed are often called the Perceptive Faculties. The 
term Powers of Mental Acquisition is here nsed to desig- 
nate that class of faculties, or powers, which causes those 
active operations that take place at tlie several gate-ways 
of knowledge, and transmit information to the mind from 
the outward world; and tliose also which aid to combine, 
arrange, classify, and retain this information, so that it 
may become permanent knowledge. These powers are 
manifested in the mind's ability to gain a knowledge of 
form, color, number, size, position, distance, order, weight, 
sound, time, etc., and in the ability to compare, combine, 
construct, classify, and arrange. 

Phrenolo(jists use terms indicating the kinds of ideas 
obtained from the principal qualities of objects to desig- 
nate these several mental powers; and each of these 
powers is called by them an organ of the mind, and is 
assigned a definite position on the head. 

Our powers of mental acquisition may be cultivated 
by attentively observing likeness and unlikeness, or re- 
semblances and differences, in whatever comes within 
the range of the senses. It is by such an exercise of the 
senses as will impart to them activity, aciiteness, accuracy, 
facility, and strength that the desired cultivation must be 
accomplished. Appropriate exercises of the organs of 
sense will add these qualities to the several powers of the 
mind ; and this addition of more activity and strength to 
the mind by experience constitutes that which is under- 
stood, by the terms development^ cultivation^ education. 



380 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

As the eleineiits of thought are multiplied by observation 
ideas are more and more I'eadily formed ; and thus the 
more Ave learn correctly, the more easily can we acquire 
additional knowledge. 

OBSERVATION. 

This is not a faculty of the mind, but rather a common 
term used to express the results of the action of several 
mental powers, prominent among which are those of per- 
ceptiveness, conception, and attention. Inasmuch as in 
the practical exercises of education the combined action 
of these powers of mental acquisition is chiefly consid- 
ered, rather than their individual qualities, I shall here 
treat of them in this united capacity, under the name of 
Ohservation. 

The act of observing springs from the natural desire to 
know. This act, in turn, reacts on that desire, stimulat- 
ing it and increasing the power of observation. A child, 
whose powers of mental acquisition have been properly 
exercised, will acquire the hahit of ohservation, and thus 
increase his ability to gain knowledge. 

To observe is not merely to see, and hear, and feel, but 
to see,, and hear, and feel ^vith such attention as to perceive 
clearly and accurately. The more the obsef'vation is thus 
employed, tlie more will be brought into the view of the 
mind by sensations and perceptions. 

Observation should first be employed upon those qual- 
ities whicli act directly upon tlie senses; since tlie more 
these are noticed, and the more ideas of them are asso- 
ciated together, the better will be laid the foundation for 
future knowledge. In the works of nature there is much 
more to excite the observation of children, as well as 
nmch more tliat can be made the subjects of pleasing in- 
struction, than in the works of art; but the judicious in- 
structor will not be at a loss to find numerous objects 



POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITIOX. 381 

■witliin doors, as well as without, to thus aid in the proc- 
ess of mental culture, especially such as will stimulate the 
mind to a careful observation of nature. 

The habit of observation depends, in part, upon the 
general culture of the mind, especially upon the asso- 
ciated thoughts and feelings connected with external ob- 
jects. The farmer's boy, with all the advantages that the 
country and his employment afford him for the excite- 
ment of his observation, where no attention has been 
given to this kind of education, sometimes will be found 
extremely deficient in the habit of careful observation. 
His perceptions are dull from lack of exercise, and his 
mind is scarcely awakened. Sensations often repeated, 
without being perceived, cease to excite the notice of 
the mind, and its noble powers lie dormant from want 
of exercise. 

Those who have been engaged in the business of edu- 
cation well know the different degrees of accuracy and 
quickness of observation that are found in children, and 
also how important it is, for progress in intellectual cult- 
ure, that this iiabit should be early formed. Childhood 
is the period of observation, and it should then be made 
a primary object in training. Observation is of essential 
value in every branch of education, and in every depart- 
ment of life. The successful acquisition of every science 
depending upon experiment — indeed, the acquisition of 
knowledge of every kind which depends upon the exer- 
cise of the perceptive faculties, the cultivation of taste, 
information relating to the common concerns of life, and 
even the civilities of society — require a constant exercise 
of this habit. 

So long as the observation of a child does not rest 
merely with the immediate objects of perception, but con- 
tinues to connect them with that information which the 
instructor communicates, or which has been derived from 



382 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHL\G. 

past observation, it is very usefully employed. Whatever 
method is found to invigorate and render the powers of 
observation more accurate sliould be frequently employed. 
Till the understanding has made considerable progress, 
this should be a leading object in intellectual culture; 
and in every period of it the habit should be frequently 
brought into use. By a proper exercise of it the mem- 
ory and judgment are directly cultivated; and, while it 
strengtliens and rouses the energy of the mind, it fur- 
nishes it with some of the most serviceable materials for 
the understanding.* 

Exercises for the culture of observation in young chil- 
dren should be limited to a few minutes at one time ; but 
these may be gradually lengthened as the children acquire 
greater command over their attention, and manifest a 
greater desire for information. Many objects should, at 
Urst, be oliered successively to their notice, because the 
immaturity of their minds does not ])erinit a 'minute in- 
vestigation of each I and attention can then be kept up 
only by variety and novelty. As their powers of obser- 
vation increase by exercise, the subjects for consideration 
ma}'' be gradually diminished, until one may suffice for a 
single lesson. When advancement has been made, they 
may be required to attend more closely to a single object 
for a greater length of time, and thus attain more thor- 
oughness of information. But let it never be forgotten 
that long confinement and protracted application to one 
subject should be carefully avoided with young children. 
There should be no gloom, no misery, associated with the 
first intellectual exertions. Happiness is the privilege of 
childhood. 

It has already been shown that external objects exert 
an influence upon the mind by means of the senses, and 

* Principles of Education, hj Rev. L. Carpenter, LL.D., contains many of 
the ideas presented in the foregoing statements. 



POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITION. 383 

tliat the influences wliieh are thus produced remain with 
the mind as impressions or mental residua. " These re- 
sidua manifest themselves as so many tendencies to recur- 
rence^ and the larger the accumuhition of them in any 
given form, the stronger that tendency becomes. Hence 
it is that men who are passionately devoted to any given 
brancli of knowledge iind food for observation every- 
where. The botanist has an eye for a tliousand minute 
plants wliicli wholly escape the observation of the ordi- 
nary beholder; the entomologist has the same for insects; 
the geologist for the appearance of the soil, the rocks, and 
the mountains. Wherever long observation has accumu- 
lated vast stores of residua, the least stimulus will cause 
them to recur, and every fresh object will add something 
to the entire mass of our knowledge."* 

In subsequent remarks on the Culture of Lanr/uage several 
suggestions will be presented which are also exceedingly appro- 
priate for exercising observation. 

* Morell's Mental Philosophy. 



384 MAJy^UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



POWEES OF MENTAL EEPEODUCTIOK 

LANGUAGE. 

In considering the operations df the mind through the 
PeTceptive Faculties, the necessity for the use of hinguage 
does not become apparent. Sensations, perceptions, and 
conceptions may exist, impressions may be taken into the 
mind, and tliese may blend into ideas of objects, all with- 
out the aid of language. But we now come to a point, in 
the development of the human mind, where a new ele- 
ment is required ; one which will enable the mind to 
embody its ideas in signs external to ourselves, so that it 
can safely store them away with the certainty of finding 
them again wdien wanted ; and also of making them known 
to others. This element is supplied by language. 

When the mind has blended its residua into simple 
ideas, and tliese simple ones have in turn combined into 
generalized forms, language comes in with its symbols, 
bringing order and fixity to our tlioughts, and adding the 
power of using them at will. A single word may sum up 
the result of a vast series of individual impressions in 
a generalized form. Language aids in condensing and 
abbreviating our ideas. It thus acts in relation to our 
thoughts the part which algebraic symbols perform in 
higher mathematical calculations. As it would be impos- 
sible to keep all the parts of a complicated calculation in 
the mind without such symbols, so would it be beyond 
the possibility of mental power to retain and use our in- 
dividual ideas without beimr overwhelmed with their in- 



POWERS OF MENTAL EEPRODUCTIOX. 3 85 

finite multiplicity, could, we not sum them up in symbols, 
and use those symbols as representatives of certain men- 
tal equivalents. 

Although v;q perceive the world by means of the senses, 
it is iu and throu2:h the forms of lancjuao'e that we com- 
lyrclieiid it. We are also brought into the general cur- 
rent of human thoughts through the agency of language ; 
and by means of it we are enabled to remember and com- 
bine our ideas to an unlimited extent. Just as the sym- 
bols of numbers in algebra give us the power of calculat- 
ing the most comprehensive and distant results, so the 
symbols of ideas in language enable us to combine our 
thoughts and work out our reasonings to an extent other- 
wise wholly unattainable. 

The origin of language has long been a vexed question ; 
but whether it sprung from the Divine Mind, and was 
communicated to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden ; or 
whether, after the Creator had furnished man with all the 
necessary organs, aiid conferred on him the physical pow- 
ers of speech, it developed itself in sounds as natural sym- 
bols of the mind's ideas of objects, which gradually took 
the form of icords by common usage in representing the 
same tilings, and tlius ultimately grew up from necessity 
into a means of communication between man and man, or 
not, this fact, at least, may be asserted of it — living lan- 
guage is in the process of daily creation. It is neither 
complete nor stationary. A dead language is a record of 
some past development of a race ; a living language is tlie 
record of the present thoughts and mental progress of 
the nation, and of the individuals which use it. 

Language furnishes the symbols of our ideas ; hence it 
must change with the ideas of the people; and the ex- 
tent of these changes is such that some words now sym- 
bolize ideas directly opposite iu meaning to those which 
they once re})rcsented. 



38G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"Man's expressive power seems to Lave consummated itself in 
the phenomena of language. In this form his ■whole nature, ani- 
mal, intellectual, and moral, finds effectual utterance ; and by this 
instrumentality does he become pre-eminently a progressive be- 
ing. Language is the channel in which the ceaseless stream of 
mental action flows onward to its great results. Without this 
outlet, his soul, imprisoned within itself, would stagnate, and its 
wondrous powers perish from inaction. 

"As the medium of communication between mind and mind, 
language renders education practicable, and brings to the aid of 
the individual the accumulated thoughts of all time and of all 
men. Language is the peculiar and chosen province of education. 
Every process of human culture is conducted through its agency ; 
every result attained in liuman progress is recorded in its terms; 
and in every civilized and cultivated community language is just- 
ly taken as the measure of individual and social attainment."* 

The importance of langnagc will be further considered 
M'hen treating of Memory. 

Culture in the Use of Language. — It lias already 
been seen that onr ideas are symbolized by means of 
words, and that langnage enables the mind to nse its 
thonghts at will. It is now proper to present a few sng- 
gestions indicating how facility in the use of this simplest 
form of langnage may be acquired. 

It is well known to those who observe infants during 
their early efforts at learning words that they lirst acquire 
the names of things, afterward names of acts, and of 
qualities. Since their commencement with language con- 
sists in learning words which are the names of external 
objects, great care should be taken to secure a correct un- 
derstanding of these words, and a thorough syndjolization 
of ideas by them, 

* From Intellectual Education, by Win. Russell, A.M., in Barnard's Journal 
uf Education. 



rOWERS OF MENTAL REPRODUCTION. 387 

Tlie processes for aiding young children in learning 
this class of words is very plain. Either the things them- 
selves may be shown them, and the words properly asso- 
ciated, or pictures can be employed to represent to the 
mind what cannot be directly made the subject of obser- 
vation. 

The following extracts are from Language as a Means 
of Mental Culture, by C. Marcel : 

" From tlie moment that a child articulates distinctly, various 
faraihar objects should be offered to his notice, and their use ex- 
plained ; their names being, at the same time, clearly uttered for 
him, he slioiild be made to repeat them slowly and aloud. But 
he must not be forced into premature efforts to speak, lest he 
should acquire habits of indistinct and defective utterance. Pre- 
mature walking is not more injurious to the organs of motion 
than is premature speaking to the vocal organs. In order also to 
guard against fatiguing bun by a dry repetition of words, the 
instructor should enliven the exercise by making, in plain lan- 
guage and in a playful manner, some simple observations on the 
nature and use of tlie things which he is called upon to name. 

"This exercise should at first be limited to a few objects at 
one time, and the same things should be repeatedly presented 
to him, associated with their names, until he perfectly knows 
these words. Ills vocabulary should be gradually extended by 
the introduction of new objects, wliich he is made to observe 
and name, such as articles of dress, food, furniture — everything 
which he can hold in his hand, or which may be seen either 
from the window or out-of-doors. This mode of proceeding 
will soon put a young child in possession of a large number of 
useful nouns. 

" As the child's intellect opens and becomes capable of exam- 
ining objects minutely, of distinguishing their resemblances and 
differences, of noticing iha'w parts, their matter, their color, their 
form, and their number, his attention should be successively di- 
rected to all these poitits. Thus will his mind be early brought 



388 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

in contact with the external world, and be duly exercised by as- 
cribing to every object of sense its qualities and peculiar condi- 
tion. He will also easily remember the words, when the ideas 
they signify are once clearly apprehended. A correct acquaint- 
ance with the meaning and application of words must not be 
deemed a matter of little moment in the first years of life. If 
we consider the disastrous results to which ignorance on these 
points has led, and the inconvenience which often arises to the 
best educated among us from this single source, we shall find 
that time well employed which is devoted to securing a knowl- 
edge of the meaning of words. 

"The instructor should employ every means in his power to 
guard his pupils against using obscure terms, or words without 
definite ideas attached to them. To this effect objects and facts 
must not be brought under their notice in very rapid succession. 
The introduction of a new expression should be preceded by 
the perception of the thing signified, or the illustration of the 
fact which it serves to designate. They should, as it were, be 
made to feel the want of the word or expression. Then it will 
serve, as it ought, both to retain the impression and to recall it 
as occasion requires. By this means, also, their knowledge of 
words will keep pace with their ideas. Some people have more 
words than ideas ; others have more ideas than words. Of these 
two evils, the second is the smaller ; for we only find it an incon- 
venience not to be able adequately to express all our tliouglits; 
but we render ourselves ridiculous by misapplying words for 
want of knowing their corresponding ideas. 

" Children should be encouraged to state not only what they 
know, but what they can discover ; they should indirectly be 
made to feel a wish for any information they require ; they 
should be allowed frequent o[)portunities of asking questions and 
unfolding their own ideas ; they should be desired to account-for 
facts, to state the causes of the effects which they witness." 

When the minds of children have become stimnlated 
to sncli a degree as to le.ad tlicm to be eager for informa- 
tion, do not repress this desire for knowledge by refusing 



TOWERS OF MENTAL RErRODUCTION. 389 

to answer, nor allow tliem to ask all the questions them- 
selves. Frequently ply them with questions which will 
lead them to tell what they know of the objects that they 
see, and the sounds which they hear; and cause them also 
to gain ability to answer, by observing carefully those 
things about which the questions relate. 

Request them to lind resemblances and differences be- 
tween two or more objects, and to name things which 
possess in common any given property,^nd others which 
have peculiar and distinct properties. Teach them to 
judge by their senses alone of distances in length, in 
height, or in depth ; also of the dimensions, weights, and 
capacities of things. These trials of skill may be made 
objects of playful competition between children. 

"As one of the chief objects of these lessons is to acquire a 
command of words, young inople should not he allowed to answer 
in inonGsyllahles ; or, rather, questions should be put to them, so 
as to require more than a mere word of assent or dissent. A 
single yes, or no, often proceeds from a want of due considera- 
tion of the subject. Let them be encouraged to express their 
doubts freely on every subject, and the little discussions arising 
therefrom will be profitable, provided the confidence and vivacity 
with which they are carried on be tempered by modesty and 
courtesy. They will remove that awkward diffidence which, 
when not early counteracted, often proves an obstacle to success 
in after-life. 

" These conversations are admirably calculated for inuring the 
young to mental labor, and preparing them for future exertion 
in every walk of science and literature. There is not a subject 
which could not, by easy transition, be entered upon, no infor- 
mation which could not be introduced. Things the most famil- 
iar, circumstances the most trivial, may give rise to instructive 
and interesting observations, and to the highest contemplations. 
Any object in the house, in the street, or in the fields, a toy — 
anything which is within reach, or within view — all that nature 



390 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

has produced, or art Las modified, can be made a subject of ob- 
servation. The humblest as well as the noblest objects in crea- 
tion may furnish inexhaustible topics of conversation, and lead, 
by a contemplation of the works of the Creator, to the manifes- 
tation of his infinite power, wisdom, and goodness. 

" The abundance of matter in these lessons always affords the 
means of makinq; instruction interesting to young people. Every 
new object which is submitted to their examination becomes val- 
uable, not only because it exercises the mind and gives positive 
information, but also because the facts to which it leads are nec- 
essarily connected in their minds with similar facts previously as- 
certained. The more numerous the facts which children collect, 
the more will their judgment be rectified and invigorated, and 
the more clear and extensive will be their knowledge of words. . 

"These lessons cultivate in young people the talent of rational 
conversation, which, in ordinary education, is entirely left to 
chance, althougli it is the most useful, the most social, and the 
most intellectual of all talents. They impart the free, excursive 
acquaintance with various learning which makes the pleasing 
and instructive companion ; and if they were generally adopted, 
they would not fail, in the course of time, to raise the tone of 
conversation in society. The powers of language of the learners 
being constantly called forth in proposing and answering ques- 
tions, in stating the results of their observations, and in making 
verbal or written summaries of the subjects on which they have 
conversed, they will necessarily acquire great facility of expres- 
sion in connection with great clearness of thought. And if they 
excel in conversation, they have every prospect of success in pub- 
lic speaking and writing. 

" The variety of sensations and the pleasing action of the men- 
tal faculties throughout these animated lessons will, by arousing 
the creative powers of imagination, produce fertility of thought 
and aptitude for extempore speaking. Under the influence of 
the agreeable emotions arising from the contemplation of nature 
and the admiration of its wonders, the power of association in 
the young will retain that vividness and that freshness which are 
the life-springs of eloquence. The most beautiful images of ora- 



POWERS OF MENTAL KEPRODUCTION. 391 

tory arc those Avhicli it borrows from the material realities of 
nature. The more diversified the instruction, the greater will be 
the number of ascertained facts, and the more extensive the com- 
mand of language. Expressions and facts thus treasured up by 
the mind will remain ready for future use." 



392 MAIsUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



MEMORY. 

Those mental operations by wliicli ideas are produced 
have already been considered. Intimately connected with, 
and following these, appear a new class of mental mani- 
festations — tiiose exliibited in retaining and recalling ideas 
that have been previously acquired. The powers of the 
mind manifested by tliese processes are called Memory. 
Although we speak of memory as a faculty of the mind, 
we by no means regard it as a single mental power, but 
rather as a combination of several powers, the idea of 
which is represented by the term memory. The impor- 
tance of this faculty is probably more generally appre- 
ciated than that of any other power belonging to the 
mind ; yet how we remember, and what definite plans of 
instruction should be pursued to render memory the most 
serviceable to as, is very imperfectly understood. 

The power of memory depends upon attention, and the 
order and system which we give to the arrangement of 
our ideas b}'' classification and association through the aid 
of language. 

"No one witli any amount of attention could retain a perfect 
mental representation of the stars and groups of stars in the sky, 
were there no further mental activity exercised upon them than 
their mere perception. But let some principle of order and ar- 
rangement be brought in ; let the groups be classified, and let 
the relative positions be marked by association ; let the vvliole 
finnamcnt be thus mapped out upon some intelligible principle, 
and there is a clew given by which the whole can be retained in 
the memorj', and the separate portions at any time be recalled. 
And what is true here is equally true, according to its measure, 



MEMORY. 393 

in every other case. Notldng tliat we see, hear, or think of ex- 
ists alone. Everything stands in the midst of a system of ideas 
of which it forms a part, and with which it has numberless con- 
nections ; and it is by surrounding a fact with a net-work of such 
ideas, all duly ordered and arranged, that we are enabled to go 
back to the exact point in the system wliere we shall be able to 
recover it, and bring it forth to our consciousness."* 

Suppose we wish to remember a certain flower. By 
means of the perceptive faculties we examine it carefully, 
and locate the facts obtained in due order in some well- 
arranged system of botany. Then, in subsequent efforts, 
to recall those facts, as the mind passes along from the 
class to the /'a??iz7y, and the genus and species, its, charac- 
teristics readily recur to the memory. 

It does not matter, so far as the principle of memory is 
concerned, whether the links which connect our ideas in 
a systematic arrangement be logical or practical, whether 
natural or artificial ; the important feature is order and 
system in Mending, classifying, and associating our ideas. 
However, it is very desirable, in cultivating the memory, 
to acquire habits of forming naturcd connections in asso- 
ciating ideas, since the links thus forged are stronger and 
of a w'ider use to the mind than those produced by artifi- 
cial associations. Nevertheless, it is often necessary to 
create artificial links between our ideas, where very few 
natural ones exist. This is especially the case in the mat- 
ter of dates and numbers. The whole principle of every 
system of mnemonics is based npon the plan of creating 
a connected series of artificial links to aid the memory, 
so that, when any one part of the series is given, the mind 
can pass by regular steps to any other, and thus drop 
down npon any particular number or date that may be 
required. 

* Morcll's Mental P/nlosophi/. 

17^- 



394 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

"The power of memory may be represented under the figure 
of a spider's web, which sends out its tlireads in all directions, 
establishing connection with every part, and with the central 
point of the whole. When the mind has woven such a web 
around any object, it can pass along any of the threads at pleas- 
ure, and reach any given point in the system. Thus, it only de- 
pends on volition to keep the clew to every idea we may desire 
to recall in our minds, and to bring it at any moment back into 
the light of consciousness."* 

This view of memory gives an idea of the great im- 
portance of giving proper attention to its hiws in metliods 
of instruction. It shows us that if we would fix impor- 
tant truths and princi])les indelibly in the mind of a pu- 
pil, so that he can recall them at will, we must establish 
connections between them and other ideas already exist- 
ing in his mind. First, a system of natural links should 
be established, since this process develops the most im- 
portant power of memory. This may be accomplished 
through the blending of similar ideas into generalized 
forms, and then classifying and connecting these with 
kindred combinations of thought. Other connections 
may be made by means of practical associations ; and still 
others by logical, and even by artificial, links, so that it 
^vill be impossible for the idea or truth to remain isolated 
in the mind. In this way the bridges will become so nu- 
merous that the mind can easily return to the truth thus 
lodged there at any future period. 

Instead of this thorough discipline of the powers of 
memory in the school-room, and the development of these 
several aids to learning, the pupil is too commonly left to 
struo^gle on in vain efforts at the accumulation of knowl- 
edge by merely trj^ing to "commit to memory" words 
which barely represent to him so many isolated ideas. 

* Morell's Metdal Fhilosophij. 



MEMORY. 395 

It is no wonder that neither the words nor the ideas whicli 
they symbolize are forth-coming when an examination is 
made to ascertain what the pupil has learned. 

Importance of Language. — Notwithstanding the 
memory is so generally abused by committing mere 
words, it must not be inferred tliat words are of but little 
importance, and may therefore be slighted. Just the re- 
verse is true. Voluntary memory is based upon language. 
Were our ideas not symbolized by words, or signs, we 
could not recall them at will. By means of language we 
can hold our ideas before us as something existing apart 
from ourselves, and combine, or separate, or place them in 
any relationship that we may choose. This is the high- 
est order of memory. But, in cultivating the memory 
through the aid of language, care must be taken to secure 
the ideas wliich tlie words symbolize by means of classifi- 
cation, also by associating them witli the words, and the 
words with the things represented. By these processes 
the mind may gain such a power as will render the mem- 
ory both accurate and I'eady. 

Association of ideas alone produces hut an involuntary 
memory. Its peculiarity consists in the recalling of an 
idea by the presence of that with which it is associated, 
without the influence of the loill. The sight of an object, 
a sound, an odor, a taste, or a feeling, may each recall 
ideas which have been previously associated witli them ; 
but the mind has not the power to recall at will, unaided 
by the presence of the associated object or quality, ideas 
that have not been symbolized with words or signs. 

Human and Brute Memory. — Probably here is the 
dividing line between human memory and hrtite memory. 
The human memory deals with ideas, words, symbols, 
and even abstract ideas ; and forms natural, artificial, and 
logical associations with these ; and is sid)ject to the loill. 



39G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

The lirute memory deals witli simple ideas and things 
only, and makes none but natural associations ; and the 
ideas are recalled hy the presence of the associated object, 
without the iiijluence of the will. Human memory is vol- 
xmtary ^ brute memory is involuntary. 

Tlic animal that learns to perform a certain act on 
hearing a given sound remembers the act by associating 
it with the sound. A horse that has travelled a road 
only once, when it again passes the same way recollects 
by association the places where it stopped, and even inci- 
dents that occurred. A dog that has been whipped for 
some act, associates the whipping with the act dune, and 
thus is prevented from repeating it through this associa- 
tion.* 

Man also uses this same process of memory — that of 
simple association ; and, although it is a low order of de- 
velopment of this faculty, yet it is of great importance 
when properly exercised, and aided witli ideas symbolized 
by words, and these M'ords associated with objects. By 
this means, however, it becomes a very different process 
from that of direct association alone, and a most valuable 
aid in giving facility to memory. 

Culture of Memory. — The powers of memory depend, 
to a great degree, upon the cultivation of those faculties 
by which knowledge is acquired. If the perceptive fac- 
ulties be clear and active, the observation quick and accu- 
rate, the power of attention steady and strong, and habits 
of classifying and associating ideas carefully foriucd, tile 
memory will iirmly hold and readily reproduce the ideas 
and words which have been duly acquired. Therefore, 
by cultivating the powers of mental acquisition, the foun- 
dation for a retentive and ready memory will be laid. 

* An interesting chapter on the "Difference between Man and the Infe- 
rior Animals" may be found in Dr. Iloolicr's Unman Physiology, p. 347. 



MEMORY. 397 

Three Periods of Memory. — The memory assumes 
somewhat different aspects during the several periods of 
mental development. Because of these various condi- 
tions or tendencies of memory, it is especially important 
that the processes for its cultivation should correspond in 
character to its several stages of mental development. 

First Period. — In infancy the memory is chiefly occu- 
pied with the simple materials furnished by the powers 
of mental acquisition — ideas, and their symbols. This pe- 
riod usually embraces about t\iQ Jirst eight or ten years of 
the child's life. Since those powers of the mind which 
acquire ideas are earliest developed, and most active dur- 
ing the lirst period, children should then be chiefly train- 
ed in the attainment and memory of ideas and facts, and 
the words which represent them. But the v.'ords should 
always receive an immediately subsequent consideration, 
since their oflice is that of symbolizing the ideas so that 
they may be readily acted upon by the memory. During 
this period of acquisition the order should he, first the 
idea, then the word as its sign. 

Young children should not be required to memorize 
words without having an idea of their meanino-. It is 
true that their ideas must necessarily be less complete 
than those of adults, but they should be correct as far as 
they go, and such as the child's mind can grasp. 

The exercise of the verbal memory merely is one of 
the great errors in the methods of school-room instruc- 
tion, yet no method is more common than this in those 
primary schools where concert repetition is generally 
employed. The mere memorizing of words is allowed 
too prominent a place in the ordinar}' routine of schools, 
in comparison with its small educational value. Tiie rep- 
etition of words is erroneously supposed to aid in cultivat- 
ing the memory ; whereas it may produce an opposite ef- 



398 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

feet. Words continuously repeated, -without associatinf^ 
them with ideas, may become so familiar to the ear, that, 
like the ticking of a clock in our room, they rarely atti'act 
the attention of the mind. "When sucli is the condition, 
the repetition of words becomes not only a loss of time 
but a positive mental injur}-. If the habit of remember- 
ing words without understanding them be once formed, it 
will ever afterward prove a great obstacle to the success- 
ful acquisition of knowledge. 

Some teachers make the great mistake, in school exer- 
cises, of treating this mental power as if it were the chief 
or only instrument by which knowledge is acquired and 
the mind cultivated. Acting upon this erroneous suppo- 
sition, they require their pupils to "commit to memory" 
delinitions, rules, formulas, problems, and demonstrations 
in grammar, arithmetic, and geometry, and pages, of geog- 
raphy, and chapters of history, without understanding 
them, as if the repetition of these alone could work out 
the development of the mind by some mysterious trans- 
mutation. Memory is not afaGuUy of inental acquisition, 
but rather one of preserving and reproducing the knowl- 
edge which is accumulated through other faculties. 

The suggestions given under the head of " Culture in 
Language " in the preceding pages will afford many use- 
ful hints relative to the cultivation of memory during 
this first period, as language and memory are intimately 
connected. 

Second Period. — Dui'ing the second period, whicli ex- 
tends f j'oni the age of ciyht or ten to about Jifteen, the 
memory is occupied more extensively with language, as 
the representative of ideas embodied in connected thoughts. 
Hence, this is the period especially adapted to the acqui- 
sition of the habit of "connnitting to memory" language 
that expresses thoughts accurately and beautifully. 



MEMORY. 399 

The recollection of ideas is at all times of the greatest 
importance, but the memory should he especially exercised 
on words and language during the second period of mental 
development. AVliile the ideas should still receive due 
attention, yet greater efforts may now be made toward 
forming habits of ready and accurate recollection of lan- 
guage. The importance of such a habit must be apparent 
to every one, when it is remembered how much more de- 
sirable it is to be able to repeat the exact statements of 
others instead of giving what we think were tlieir ideas. 
If their words are given, every one may judge for him- 
self wdiat they mean ; but if our own ideas of their mean- 
ing are given instead of their words, serious misunder- 
standings may be the result. Many instances have occur- 
red in which grievous consecpiences have resulted from 
persons relating their own apprehensions of the meaning 
of others, instead of what they actually said. 

During this period the work of instruction should be 
so conducted as to establish habits of readily committing 
to memory the thoughts of others ; uot only because at 
this time the mind is especially adapted to this exercise, 
but because, if neglected until the mind has attained that 
maturity and fixity of habits which are acquired during 
the third period, tliis habit of readiness and accuracy in 
the recollection of language probably will not be acquired 
at all. 

Frequent "oral repetitions" aid the memory through 
the sense of hearing, by the associations of successive 
sounds, and may profitably be employed for this purpose 
after the ideas and language both have been taught to 
the children. While this is one of the processes which 
may be employed in committing to memory, yd it is the 
least intellectual of all, and should be used only to aid 
other and more intellectual modes. 

Again, the importance of learning to remember Ian- 



400 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHn>:G. 

guage will be understood, wlien it is considered that ideas 
fade from the memory much sooner when they are not 
associated with words. But it must not be inferred that 
the mere memory of words, without associating them 
with their ideas, will be of any educational service 
whatever. 

By the practice of stating clearly in words what we 
wish to remember, the memory will obtain great pow- 
er over our ideas. Without some such expression of 
thoughts in language, our ideas flow into each other so 
that they present no clearly-defined lines of thought by 
M'liich we can recall them. This shows the importance 
of requiring pupils to express, partly at least, in their 
own words facts which we desire them to remember. 

Dnring this period special attention should be given to 
learning geography, history, biography ; committing to 
memory declamations, poetry, quotations, and sentiments, 
as a means of storing the mind with gems of thougiit 
which are clothed in beautiful language, and also for con- 
tributing to a ready use of good language. 

Third Period. — During the third period, commencing at 
about the age of fifteen, the memory begins to come more 
directly under the influence of the judgment, and to deal 
with reasons, principles, and laws — cause and effect. Yet 
neither ideas nor w^ords should be neglected even then. 
In this stage of development a few words may be em- 
ployed to represent many thoughts, and a short combina- 
tion of words to imply trains of reasoning. 

The habit of classifying ideas, and referring particular 
ones to general principles, will be found to greatly aid the 
memory during this period. Indeed, the power of mem- 
ory depends for its strength and facility upon properly 
classifying and associating our ideas, and connecting them 
with other thoughts and facts previously acquired. 



MEMORY. 401 

Employ as many of the senses in the acquisition of 
Icnowledge as possible, for each one will convey its peculiar 
form of impressions to the mind, and the blending of these 
together into ideas, the symbolizing of the ideas with 
words, and the classification and association of the words, 
furnish a great number of links by which the knowledge 
may be connected and recalled at will. If an object be 
examined by sight, then by touch, and the ideas which 
are thus gained of it be clearly stated in words, the mind 
will receiv'e a third and new impression through the sense 
of hearing. Here, then, Mall be three distinct classes of 
impressions, derived by means of the senses of seeing, feel- 
ing, and hearing, to unite in forming a complete idea of 
the object, and also at the same time furnishing three 
classes of links by wdiich it may be remembered. 

In conclusion, let it be again impressed on the mind of 
teachers that the processes of instruction to be pursued 
should always be such that each subject and fact shall 
reach the mind through the greatest number of senses 
practicable ; and especially let the sense of sight he em- 
ployed, toheii possible, in some form, to aid in securing 
clear conceptions; and. let a statement of the facts be 
clearly given in words, and associations be made with 
kindred facts previously acquired ; then memory will be 
strong and read}', and progress in knowledge rapid and 
permanent. 



402 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniNG. 



ATTENTION. 

Attention is a mental phenomenon indicating a most 
important power of the mind. It does not, however, be- 
long to that dass of powers which are usually called 
faculties. Instead of acting by itself directly upon the 
M'orld without through the s,enscs, its mode of influence 
is by and through the other faculties. In its simplest 
state it appears to be merely the notice which the mind 
takes of its sensations j and frequently this attention 
seems to be involuntary. This is especially the case in 
very young children, when various objects are employed 
to attract the notice of the mind. Lut by degrees the 
mind exerts a greater and greater controlling influence 
over it, until attention finally becomes a voluntary act. 
In this capacity it is capable of being greatly strengthened 
by cultivation. 

Of itself " it originates nothing, it teaches nothing, it 
puts us in possession of no new truth;" j'et it is so inti- 
mately connected with the other mental powers that they 
would be of little avail without it. Thus we see that its 
importance can hardly be over-estimated, since the several 
faculties would become so deficient in the ability of con- 
tinued action without it, that even natural acuteness could 
accomplish but little, and we should be destitute of those 
mental characteristics and steady habits which contribute 
so largely to success in life. 

" The force of attention is simply the pcrceptivcness of the 
mind adjusting itself perfectly to the objects it contemplates, so 
that they may produce tlicir full effect upon it. Until this ad- 
justment is effected, the impression of the objects must necessari- 



ATTENTION. 403 

ly be confused and imperfect; as, in a camera-obscura, the lens 
must be placed in a proper position to receive all the light thai 
comes from the landscape, or the picture will be blurred and in- 
distinct. The mind cannot give its perceptive force to a multi- 
tude of objects at the same time ; it can take up only one thing 
■with effect at one instant."* 

Attention is a bending of the mind to, or a stretcliing 
of it toward, an object. It enables the mind to arrest and 
detain the thoughts upon a particnlar object of interest, 
excluding for the time being other mental operations. 
It may become, for the moment, the sole occupation of 
the mind, as when m'C have heard a sound that greatly 
excites our interest, and listen for its repetition. 

In order to make progress in intellectual culture, habits 
of attention must he gained. It is exceedingly important 
that these be acquired very early, because the utmost effi- 
ciency will be given to all the other operations of the 
mind by these habits, and especially to the acquisition of 
clear, impressive, and serviceable ideas. Attention should 
be associated with volition as early as possible; for wdien 
this power has become subject to the v)ill the foundation 
is laid for every degree of mental culture which circum- 
stances will permit. 

Culture of Attention. — The habit of attention is an 
essential part of observation ; therefore it must be ac- 
quired before progress in intellectual culture can be made. 
If we observe a child whose attention is absorbed with 
anything, w'e shall discover that sometimes it is curiosity 
that leads him to notice so carefully M'hatever may then be 
occupying the thoughts. At other times, or in different 
children, the simple love of activity, or desire to be con- 
stantly doing something, seems to be the leading motive. 
Again, we may notice that the child does not appear to 

* Human Culture, by Garvc}-. 



404 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

be affected by either of the preceding influences, but 
by sympathy. Beside these, there is another power still 
which acts in producing attention ; and although it may 
operate in conjunction with and tlu'ough the influence of 
either of the motives already mentioned, it nevertheless 
is capable of controlling all the other influences ; that 
power is the loill — the executive force of the mind. Thus 
may we discover what the appropriate means to be era- 
ployed in cultivating- this important habit are, by observing 
the various influences acting upon the minds of children 
in producing attention. 

Curiosity exists in every child, and it may be strongly 
excited by directing the attention to proper subjects, and 
imparting information in a manner suited to the child's 
capacity. The teacher who adapts instruction to the in- 
telligence of his pupils, and interests their feelings, and 
changes the mode of presenting the object or the subject- 
matter, as the interest and the ability of the children to 
attend seem to indicate, will have no difficulty in securing 
their attention. 

Love of Activity is another motive which sustains the 
attention, because activity affords pleasure to children. 
Physical activity is no more natural to the child than 
mental activity. That pliysical strength will not be ac- 
quired by a passive condition of the bodily organs is no 
more certain than that the mind can be strengthened only 
by its own activity. Physical and mental action should 
be combined in efforts to strengthen the attention. Va- 
rious modes of doing this will be devised by the skilful 
teacher. As one mode of continuing the attention upon 
a given subject, the teacher might require the pupils to 
represent their ideas of it by actions, or by drawings, or 
in writing, and also to express them in language. 



ATTENTION. 405 

Sympathy is anotlier strong incentive to attention ; but 
it depends for its power upon the personal influence which 
the teacher has attained over the pupils throngli the exer- 
cise of the moral feelings. "Where this personal ascen- 
dency exists, and the children see that the teacher is in- 
terested in the subject or work before them, they will 
make efforts not only to imitate her, but, from the happi- 
ness whicli is afforded them through sympathy, even to 
anticipate her desires and actions. 

"There is nothing so Hkely to excite in children with whom 
we associate tastes for and attention to any subject as the exhi- 
bition of those tastes and habits in ourselves. AVhere the power 
of sympathy has been established, the idea that w^e are constantly 
occupied about them may excite the gratitude of children, but it 
will not determine the direction of their inclinations. Yet if 
they see that our interest is awakened and our curiosity excited 
by making some new observations, or by ascertaining some new 
fact, they will soon try to anticipate our discoveries. If they ob- 
serve us interested in the cultivation of flowers, in watching the 
labors of the bee, or the metamorphoses of insects, or in admiring 
the beauties of a butterfly, or even manifesting a livehj interest in 
the exercises of the school, they will soon be delighted with the 
same occupations. Example, emulation, curiosity, and sympathy 
— the most natural stimulants at this age, when pleasure is so 
vividly enjoyed, and the idea of utility so indistinct — act in uni- 
son in leading children to habits of attention."* 

How immensely important, then, it becomes that every 
teacher should possess and manifest a genuine, hearty in- 
terest in the work of instruction ! 

We cannot secure tliat quality of attention wliich is 
necessary to success in education by mere outward com- 
pulsion. Hence the importance of understanding the 
several motives which have been previonsly described, 
and their influence in the formation of habits of atten- 
* Progressive Education, by Madame Nuckcr tie Saussurc. 



406 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

tion ; for whenever any constraint is necessary it should 
be exerted in conjunction with some one, at least, of these 
other influences. 

It should be the aim of the teacher to bring the pupil's 
attention under the control of his will as early as possible. 
As this object is to be accomplished in connection with 
the habit of attention, time must be allowed for establish- 
ing it. 

"The first efforts exacted from the child should be gentle; 
one point only should be presented at a time, that be may not be 
bewildered by multiplicity. The strain on his attention should 
not be long-continued; be should be relieved befoi'e be is com- 
pelled to desist from fatigue. One success will make a subse- 
quent one easier of attainment ; failure will make the next at- 
tempt more arduous. 

"All children are not drawn alike to the same subject; some 
attend more readily to one, some to another. The teacher will 
find it advantageous to avail himself of these mental affinities in 
establishing the habit of attention in bis pupils. The child should 
first be appealed to on those subjects, or on those aspects of a 
subject, to which lie may incline. When be has learned atten- 
tion to these, it will be less diflicult to gain it for other subjects. 
The same progress in this habit must not be looked for from all 
pupils, and least of all within a given time. One who is of slow 
mental action may reach the mark much in arrear of bis neigh- 
bor, who is of a more active temper of mind. Individual differ- 
ences must be allowed for in the mental discipline of school."* 

Among the obstacles to be overcome in the cultivation 
of habits of attention in a class of pupils are slowness of 
mental ciction, sluggis/mess of temperament^ timidity^ and 
undue vivacity or volatility. Slowness of mental action 
requires arousing by the stimulus of curiosity. But tliis 
may not prove sufficiently powerful for the sluggish tcm- 

* Principles and Practice of Common - School Ud7icatio7i, hy James Currie, 
A.M., Principal of the Church of Scotland Traininj,' College, Edinbur^li. 



ATTENTION. 407 

pcramciit, which is in clanger of slumbering on through 
all the lessons of school. Fortunately, however, it is very- 
rare to lin J a child that is sluggish in everything ; and if 
he sJioics interest in even one thing more than in another^ 
through that one avenue his mind may he reached, his sen- 
siMllties awah'ened, and his attention aroused to activity. 

If inattention arise from timidity, encouragement and 
gentleness are the proper means to be employed in stim- 
ulating the attention. The child that is inattentive from 
undue vivacity, restlessness, or volatility should receive 
sufficient individual attention to secure fixity of mind 
upon one subject for which he shows some fondness, by 
directing his attention to it again and again, and, if pos- 
sible, by presenting a new feature of the subject on each 
successive occasion. The pupil should also be encour- 
aged to perseverance and close application fur a specified 
length of time, M-hich, though quite short at first, may be 
gradually increased in length as the habits of attention 
become stronger. 

The teacher with ready observation and good judgment 
will soon discover the leading mental qualities of his pu- 
pils, and for what things their preferences are shown ; 
and he will seize upon those incentives whicli awaken the 
greatest activity of mind as the links which shall at length 
become united in fastening their attention upon other 
subjects. The success of efforts for cultivating attention 
may be read in the pupil's countenance, and this must be 
the index to guide the teacher in his labors. 



408 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING, 



IMAGINATION. 

Among the different phenomena of the mind's activity 
we observe that it has the power of taking the elements 
of tlionght, which have been gathered bj the conceptive 
faculty — i. e., the concepts, or simj)le ideas — and recombin- 
ing them into new images ; also of separating or individ- 
nalizing ideas of objects, already in its possession, into 
their distinctive peculiarities of form, color, size, taste, 
etc., so that each of these may form a distinct represen- 
tation of its individualized feature. These distinctive 
peculiarities may be readily recorabined with analogous 
features separated from other ideas, thus producing new 
mental creations. 

The great mass of our ideas, in the keeping of the 
memory, are made up of many impressions or concep- 
tions from objects ; hence, are complex in their character. 
The mind has the power, not only of separating these 
complex ideas into their simple elements, but of recom- 
bining at will parts of the simple elements of many ideas 
into new images of the mind's own ideal creation. These 
powers of simple analysis and synthesis are called im- 
agination. 

It is a law of mind that the imagination can deal only 
loith ideas of sensihle ohjectsj with concepts derived from 
something seen, or heard, or felt, or tasted, or smelled. It 
has nothing to do laith alstract ideas and truths, or with 
feelings wholly separated from sensihle forms. "What- 
ever the imagination deals with it represents in such con- 
ditions, and clothes in such forms and colors, as come with- 
in the cotrnizance of the senses. Ideas derived from sen- 



IMAGINATION. 409 

siblc objects, therefore, constitute the groundwork of its 
operations.* 

The imagination not only manifests itself in several 
forms, but in various degrees of power, in different indi- 
viduals. Tlie earliest form in which it exhibits itself is 
in children playing with their toys and dolls. The little 
boy builds houses, castles, bridges, and forts with his 
blocks. A stick becomes his horse ; a bit of board, a boat 
or a carriage. The girl arrays her doll in all the finery 
and colors that her fancy can suggest ; she converses with 
it, puts it asleep, feeds it, and administers imaginary' med- 
icines to relieve it of fancied pains. Indeed, the simplest 
objects, by trifling changes of shape and position, are 
made to represent various scenes in real life, by means of 
this faculty, thus throwing a sunlight of joy over child- 
hood. The more the imagination of the child is brouglit 
into healthful exercise, the more pleasure he will derive 
from his plays. 

But this active power of the mind, which is the source 
of so much pleasure to the child, may also become, through 
its abuse, the means of painful fears and mental suffering. 
It is through the excitability of this faculty that stories 
of monsters, ferocious animals, and phantoms, which are 
foolishly and cruelly told to children, fill their minds Avith 
terrors, and people darkness with imaginary dangers that 
cause unhappiness through their whole lives. 

In childhood imagination exhibits most completely its 
objective form, and the ideal creations are commonly 
associated with objects that are present, as may be seen 
in the numerous little inventions of children ; while in 
adults its operations are carried on chiefly with concepts 
and words, and it is manifested in the beautiful thoughts 
and ideal creations of the orator, the poet, and the artist ; 



* Iliivcii's 3f:n(iil riiilosophy. 

18 



410 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

"wliile in its higher or philosophic forms it aids in chissify- 
ing facts, and also deals with supposition, theorj", and in- 
vention. It is exercised not only in the discoveries of 
science, but in the plans and projects of everj^-day life. 
hi the ])vocess of reasoning imagination goes heyond the 
known, and forms conceptions of something in the iin- 
Jcjioion, to tohich reason extends its powers of rigid ex- 
amination. 

Memory is the mincVs mirror, reflecting in its proper 
shape and color whatever has been before it. Imagina- 
tion is the mind\s kaleidoscope ; it reflects what has been 
before it in a great A'ariety of new forms and combina- 
tions. 

Not only is the cultivation of the imagination almost 
totally neglected in the usual processes of education, but 
the power and facility which it gives the teacher, when 
properly used in imparting instruction, is singularly over- 
looked. Indeed, many consider this faculty as one which 
chiefly acts in the realms of fancy and Action, and there- 
fore regard it with suspicion. Such persons sometimes 
remark that " our children had better be occupied with 
something useful, instead of building air-castles." Pray, 
what is that which is useful to children ? Activity, hab- 
its of attention, a love of knowledge, a mind stored with 
rich and sunny images which shall flit across it in after 
years, with all their pleasant associations. All these things 
are nseful to children, and the province of a cultivated 
imagination is to aid in attaining them. 

If we do not cultivate the imagination in such a man- 
ner that the child may delight itself in forming natural 
combinations and nseful mental creations, the mind will 
run riot in folly and idle musings on scenes which can 
never be realized. 

A story is related of Palonius, the celebrated Athenian 
painter, which illustrates the power of imagination. It is 



BLVGINATION. 411 

said that Palonins once portrayed so vividly a group of 
sea-sick persons in the painting called the "Sea-sick 
Family," that landsmen could not look at it without ex- 
periencing nausea. 

CultTire of Imagination. — That language and pictorial 
illustrations are the two most available instruments in 
the culture of imagination may be known from the fact 
that children so readily become deeply interested in both. 
When language is employed in descrij)tions of absent ob- 
jects and scenes so as to form word-2nctures, it becomes 
a most attractive mode of instruction, because it furnishes 
opportunities for a lively exercise of the children's imag- 
inations. 

Simple lessons in geography afford excellent facilities 
for the use of language in the cultivation of this faculty, 
through descriptions of productions, occupations, climate, 
scenery, and animals of different countries. Children like 
to be transported in imagination to the cold scenes of the 
13«elar regions, or to the land of gorgeous flowers and lux- 
uriant fruits, and to have thus pictured to them the occu- 
pations, manners, and costumes of the inhabitants of those 
foreign countries. And when these objects are associated 
with the countries to which they belong, the lesson be- 
comes not only more interesting, but the instruction more 
vivid and lasting, because the associations will be such 
that it may be readily recalled. Biography and history 
furnish materials for similar exercises, 

"The pleasure which young children derive from a narration 
of the simplest history is due to the liveliness of the pictures in 
their minds. The images which are conjured up within them 
are, perhaps, more brilliant and highly-wrought than real objects 
would be. Tlierc is no need of putting your invention to the 
rack in order to divert them. Take a child for the principal per- 
sonage; join to it a cat, a dog, or horse — any combination, in 



412 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

sliort, that makes an image ; tlicn relate your story ■with anima- 
tion, and your infant auditor Avill so eagerly listen that the in- 
terest you excite will amount to a passion. Every time be meets 
you he will make you repeat your narrative. But beware of 
changing anything; for he wishes to see the same scene again, 
and the least circumstance omitted or added dissipates the illu- 
sion which pleased him."* 

In the use of word-pictnres in the processes of instruc- 
tion the teacher should first present to the pupil a graph- 
ic outline of the most striking features of the scene, or 
object, before giving the minute characteristics. If the 
details be presented first, the mind is apt to become con- 
fused in the arrangement of these into the picture as a 
whole. 

In illustration of one method of using word-pictures, 
let us suppose a person about to read the first twenty- 
three verses of the thirteenth chapter of Matthew. He 
might introduce the reading by saying : 

"At the time when Jesus spake the words wliich I am 
about to read, he sat in a boat by the shore of the beau- 
tiful lake of Galilee, with its beach of fine white sand, 
and its cool and transparent water. On the narrow, fer- 
tile i^lain which rose gently above the lake were unfenced 
yet cultivated fields, across M'hicli lay foot-paths and the 
harder beaten road. Bej'ond were the hills lifting up 
their vine-clad sides, whose tops were crowned with olive- 
gardens, orange - groves, and citron and date trees. As 
Jesus sat in the boat, so near the shore that he could 
address the multitude standing there, he could also look 
upon the beautiful scene beyond, and he may liave beheld 
a farmer sowing his seed on the newly-furrowed ground. 
Now listen to what Jesus said on that occasion : 

"'Behold, a sower went forth to sow; and when he sowed, 
* Progressive Educaimi, by Madame Necker de Saiissure. 



IMAGIXATION. 413 

some seeds fell by the way side, and the fowls came and devour- 
ed tliem up : some fell upon stony places, where they had not 
much earth : and forthwith they sprung up, because they had no 
deepness of earth : and when the sun was up, they were scorch- 
ed ; and because they had no root, they withered away. And 
some fell among thorns ; and the thorns sprung up, and choked 
them : but other fell into good ground, and brought forth fruit, 
some a hundredfold, some sixtyfold, some thirtyfold.' " 

Let teachers accustom themselves to drawing truthful 
word-pictures, and the impressions made on the minds of 
their pupils will be life-long. 

As a practical mode of using pictorial illustrations in 
the culture of imagination, take some appropriate picture 
and describe it while holding its back toward the pupils ; 
then show it to them, and invite them to poini out all 
the features that were mentioned in the description. Af- 
terward request them to point out the prominent feat- 
ures, and describe the picture while looking at it. Sub- 
sequently require them to describe the same picture 
from memory. 

Playthings of tlie child's own arrangement or invention 
afFord him more amusement than the most costly to\'s. 
No better playthings can be given to a boy from two to 
four years of age tlian a box of inch cubes, or one of 
brick-shaped blocks, each about four inches long, two 
wide, and one inch in thickness. AVith these cubes, or 
the brick-blocks, he can exercise his imagination, and ac- 
quire much useful skill, by arranging them in a great va- 
riety of forms and positions to represent his own ideal 
creations. 

It is the exercise of the faculty of imagination, cliiefly, 
which causes children to be so fond of playing with wa- 
ter, mud, or sand, because with these substances they can 
construct representations of such objects as are used by 
men and women in the avocations of life. 



41 -i MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

" The entire existence of little children is dramatic. Their life 
is a pleasing dream, prolonged and supported by design. Inces- 
santly inventing, adorning, and acting scenes, their days pass away 
in fiction ; and, but for their puerility, they would be poets. In 
truth, all that poets have sung, all that mythology has consecrated, 
all that superstition has fancied of the life which is spread through- 
out Nature's works, is found in lively traits — sometimes burlesque, 
indeed — in early childhood."* 

When the imagination has become excited through 
fears awakened by cruel suggestions and bugbear sto- 
ries, the most careful management is necessary to re- 
move the evil. It is of little nse to combat dii'ectly the 
cliimeras of the imagination. Keasoning will prove of lit- 
tle utility in removing these imaginary fears ; for although 
we may succeed in convincing the child that there is no 
real danger, yet tlie imagination is so strong that the vi- 
sion of the snpposed danger will still retain its influence. 
Better plans for removing such fear are to leave the pre- 
dominant thought to be forgotten, to expel the sensation 
by a stronger one, to divert the attention, to interest and 
cultivate the moral and physical nature. A most direct 
remedy is to substitute, by the presence of the real object 
in the child's mind, the image of the formidable object 
in place of the imaginary creation. What we really see, 
although it be repulsive or disagreeable, produces a tran- 
quillizing effect upon the senses, and thus removes fears. 
When this course is expedient, it is very efficacious ; but 
it should be pursued with judgment. 

Tables, riddles, conundrums, pnzzles, etc., furnish means 
for exercising this faculty. What child does not like to 
listen to good fables over and over again, such as " The 
Fox and the Grapes," " The Dog and his Shadow," " Tlie 
Dog and the Manger," "The Shepherd-boy and the 
Wolf," or " The Fox and the Crow ?" Such fables and 

* Progressive Bducaiion, by Madame Neckcr de Saiissurc. 



IMAGINATION. 415 

tales as contain instruction, and impart moral truths, 
should be selected and related to children in whom we 
desire to cultivate imagination. This will be found a 
favorable mode of imparting to children practical wis- 
dom when other means fail. 

The exercise of tliis faculty in its higher forms is intimately 
connected with taste^ and with that philosophical process of the 
mind's operations which leads to conceptions of general truths, 
and with generalizations. In the department of taste imagina- 
tion is cultivated by "the study of the ideal creations of others, 
especially of those highly gifted minds which have adorned and 
enriched their age with productions of rarest value — poetry, paint- 
ing, sculpture, or architecture — which bear the stamp and seal of 
immortality. With these, in whatever department of letters or 
art — in poetry, oratory, music, painting, sculpture, architecture — 
Avhatcver is grand and lofty, and full of inspiration, whatever is 
beautiful and pleasing, whatever is of choicest worth and excel- 
lence in its own proper sphere ; with these, I repeat, let him be- 
come familiar who seeks to cultivate the faculty of the ideal. 
Every work of the imagination appeals to the imagination of the 
observer, and thus develops the faculty which it calls into exer- 
cise. No one can be familiar with the creations of Shakspeare 
and Milton, of Mozart and Beethoven, of Raphael and Michael 
Angelo, and not catch something of their inspiration."* 

Tlie study of Nature in her various moods of sublimity, 
grandeur, and beaut}^ is the most successful mode of 
developing the highest powers of this faculty. The sci- 
ence of astronomy furnishes an excellent means of exer- 
cising the imagination in a manner tliat will strengthen 
the intellectual and moral powers, and prevent the devel- 
opment of those fictitious fancies which, while they can 
never be realized, tend to weaken these powers, and to 
create a disli4ce for science and the realities of life. 

* Haven's Mental Philosophy. 



416 MA^^UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



POWEES OF HUMAN EEASON". 

COMPAKISON. 

"There is a law of mind, operating from tlie very earliest period of our 
conscious being, by virtue of wliicli identical and similar residua blend to- 
gether, so that one single mental image is formed out of the whole."* 

In observing a number of objects of the same class we 
at once become Conscious of general similcwitles which 
run through the whole ; and we also observe, at the same 
time, a great variety of dissimilarities between one indi- 
vidual and another. Now, each individual object leaves 
its own special mental residuum in the mind, so that we 
unconsciously accumulate a large number of impressions 
which have a family likeness. All these residua, ^c*/*;??' 
as they i^eseinhle each other, blend together ; while the re- 
maining elements in tlie residua, which are unlike, are 
left free to combine with any other impressions with 
which they may have any special affinity. Thus, in the 
development of concepts there is a latent process of clas- 
sification always going on. 

In observing the operations of this law it is found that, 
in proportion to the greater similarity of the objects, 
the tendency in the corresponding residua to blend to- 
gether will be greater. It is because of the existence of 
this mental law tljat we find it so difficult to count any 
number of precisely similar objects, as a flock of sheep, a 
number of marbles, or a row of fence-pickets. Tlie per- 
ception of each individual thing is clear enoftgh, but the 

* Morell's Mental Philosophy. 



POV,'ERS OF nUMAX REASON. 417 

residuum it leaves in the mind so instantl}'' blends with 
tlie residuum of the others that we cannot keep them 
apart ; lience confusion in our reckoning is the result. 

Xow, not only do like residua blend together in the 
formation of concepts, or simple ideas, but simple ideas 
also combine into generalized ideas, as has already been 
described in treating of the formation of ideas.'" 

In these earliest processes of the mind's operations we 
observe the development of its recognition of likeness and 
^inllkeness of tilings, and the law by which classification 
and generalization exist. From the continued exercise 
of these processes of classification there at length grows 
np the habit of a more general comparison of objects, and 
of ideas, for the discovery of their resemblances and dif- 
ferences. Here, then, we see the mode of development, 
and the nature of that mental operation wdiich is com- 
monly known as Comparison. In its operations during 
infancy^ comparison considers the resemblances of only two 
ohjects,l)oth of which are present; subsequently it consid- 
ers the present with the remembered absent. It is the 
child's first step toward judgment, and forms a part of 
the process of reasoning. Comi^arison deals with two 
opposite qualities — resemblance and difference. The 
mind first takes cognizance of resemblances, then of dif- 
ferences ; therefore in the processes of early education 
this order should be observed. 

Culture of Comparison. — AVe have already seen that 
the law of similarity^ on which comparison is fomided, 
exists in the mind before any educational processes can 
be applied to shape it ; yet habits of ready and accurate 
discrimination of resemblances and differences are to a 
great extent the result of education. These habits of 
comparison may be acquired by means of appropriate ex- 

* See pajje 3G0, " How Ideas are Formed." 
IS* 



418 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

erciscs. In supplying the necessary means for this pur- 
pose the familiar objects of nature should first claim our 
attention, and their physical parts and properties be con- 
sidered earlier than their abstract qualities. 

" The child's earliest perceptions being those of color, 
form, size, and motion, given him by sight, he should be 
led to notice the resemblance of one object to another, 
whole to whole, in respect to tliese perceptions." Thus, 
the dog is set beside the cat, the sheep beside the goat, 
the horse beside the ox, the cat with the lion, the hen 
with the turkey, the duck vj'iili the goose, the apple with 
the orange, the rose with the pink, the grape with the 
plum ; while comparisons are made in respect to form, 
color, size, manner of motion, etc. The covering of the 
sheep may be compared with that of the dog, the over- 
lapping feathers of birds with the shingles or tiles on a 
roof. 

Subsequently this process of comparison may be ex- 
tended to objects of which one is absent and inaccessible; 
thus, it becomes the means of enabling the imagination 
to form conceptions of things beyond the range of our 
senses. In this manner the formation of the claw of the 
tiger may be understood from comparison with that of 
the cat ; the contour and characteristics of a wolf from 
those of a dog ; and, by resemblances and differences com- 
bined, the beak and claws of the hawk or eagle may be 
conceived from those of the hen or the canary ; the cover- 
ing of the Brazil-nut from the common walnut. Indeed, 
the field is boundless, and the subjects are numberless, 
for the exercise of comparison and the acquisition of 
knowledge through its aid. 

" Somewhat later, more abstruse conceptions of the qualities 
of bodies revealed by sight, and those ■which touch makes known, 
become the subjects of comparison, as when tlie transparency of 



POWEKS OF HUJIAN REASON. 419 

glass suggests tlie transparency of the atmosphere or of water ; 
or the porosity of a sponge is exhibited in different degrees, as 
in sugar and wood ; or the elasticity of a steel-spring is found to 
exist in india-rubber and in air. These resemblances, being such 
as would never occur to the child himself, require to be verified 
by observation, and the more unexpected they are to him, the 
more valuable are they as a process of education, because more 
stimulating to the senses. 

" Besides natural objects, and their parts and qualities, there is 
another department of the child's instruction very fertile in ma- 
terials for the exercise of comparison, viz., form. Thus the line, 
singly and in its various combinations, may be made to figure in 
his mind as the pencil, pen, cross, star, arrow, letters of the al- 
phabet ; the rectilineal figures, as table, box, window-frame, door, 
book, or slate ; the curved figures, as plate, hoop, bell, egg, or cup ; 
and the geometrical solids which the teacher submits to his ob- 
servation become common things in his eyes, when exemplified, 
as orange, turnip, beet, ball, brick, pillar, arch, turret, church- 
spire, or box. 

"The idea of likeness involves that of its opposite, unlikeness. 
Comparison is equally cultivated by being directed to both. 
Wherever we can institute comparison between objects of any 
kind, we can institute contrast, and the teacher Avill often find 
contrast the more impressive, and the more effective for carrying 
out the educational maxim — ' Teach the unknoivn by the knoivn.'' 
But to render this maxim valuable the mode of procedure must 
be the child's, and not merely that of the teacher. It is for the 
teacher so to present the objects of comparison that the resem- 
blance or contrast which he aims at eliciting shall spring up in 
the child's mind in response to his hints, suggestions, and ques- 
tions."* 

" When the child's perceptive faculties have been exercised on 
the most apparent properties of things, and when he has learned 
to confine and prolong Lis attention, he should be required to ex- 
amine objects more minutely, to compare them under different 

* Currie's Principles ayid Practice of Education. 



420 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

points of view, and to state in what particular two or more re- 
semble or differ. These exercises would prove highly interesting 
to young people, who delight in discovering differences in simi- 
lar things, and resemblances between different things. He who 
is best able to compare will know best how to analyze, to ab- 
stract, to generalize, to classify, to judge — in one word, to reason. 

"As young persons collect facts, they must be frequently exer- 
cised in classifying them with reference to their resemblance or 
difference. If any number of objects is considered with regard 
to one or several points of resemblance, the collection constitutes 
a class named genus ; subdivisions of these into classes of objects 
having properties in common and distinct from the rest, form as 
many species; finally, when, on a closer examination, single ob- 
jects are considered in reference to properties which are peculiar 
to them, they are denominated individuals. The pupil should be 
shown that the terms f/enus and species are relative. For exam- 
ple, bird is a genus; eagle is a species. Affection is a genus, while 
filial love is a species. The distinction of generic and specific 
terms applies to a very extensive range of mental conceptions. 

" The complex op)eration of classify ing things according to their 
p)oints of resemblance, and of distinguishing them hy their points 
of dissimilarity, is one of the highest exercises of our reason and 
the most admirable effect of analysis. It will develop in a child 
the powers of observation, abstraction, and generalization, and 
will prepare him for the study of the natural and experimental 
sciences, by giving him habits of inductive reasoning — a principle 
on which these sciences rest. Com2xtrison and classification are 
the complements of observation, and the groundwork of inductive 
philoso2)hy, and of all scientific investigation.''^* 

Analogy. — By extending comparison to the consider- 
ation of resemblances in relations it assumes a form com- 
monly known as analogy. It now involves four terms in 
its comparisons, and its exercise belongs to a later devel- 
opment of the mind than simple comparison of objects 
and qualities, in which only two terms are considered. 

* Marcel's Langiiaye and 3Ieiital Culture. 



POWERS OF HUMAN REASOX. 421 

In analogy the relation of the trunk to the tree is com- 
pared witli the relation of the body to the man ; the cir- 
cnhition of the sap in the tree, to the circulation of blood 
in the animal ; the sting of a bee and the prickles of the 
hedge-hog, as a means of defence. 

In combination with language and imagination, compar- 
ison leads to the formation of similies, emblems, parables, 
proverbs, and figurative terms. Some of these will be 
readily recognized in the "laughing brook," the "blush- 
ing morn," the " whisper of the breeze," and similar 
phrases. 

Judgment. — During the exercises of comparison and 
classification the mind is constantly forming decisions as 
to the likeness and unlikeness, resemblances and differ- 
ences of objects and qualities ; and these decisions are 
called judgments. They are the simple results of com,' 
2?arison^ and constitute an important part of the process, 
of classification. These simple judgments, accumulating 
by means of observation and comparison, combine to 
make up our certain and valuable knowledge of things. 

By this exercise of considering various things with ref- 
erence to each otlier there is laid a foundation for accura- 
cy in discrimination and soundness of judgment, which 
forms that character of mind known as a good under- 
standing. The power of comparison, distinguishing and 
judging between two or more things, is generally implied 
by the term " understanding." To understand a thing 
is to know its proper connections in nature and art, and 
to see it in combination with everything else of a cognate 
character. It will, therefore, readily be perceived that 
accuracy of judgment must depend upon habits of correct 
observation. Here we see again the great importance of 
thoroughly training the Powers of Mental Acquisition ; 
for, unless these be properly cultivated, much of the labor 



422 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

bestowed upon the other powers of the mind will be in 
vain, and it will be impossible to attain accuracy in rea- 
soning. 

There is, however, that higher form of mental activity, 
which determines the result of reasoning, that is called 
judgment. This term is also applied to the final decis- 
ions of the mind, attained through the process of reason- 
ing. The mental activity, known as judgment and its 
processes, is so intimately connected with the operations 
of other mental powers, and their special educational in- 
fluences are so inseparable, that it will not be profitable 
to dwell longer on the separate consideration of judgment 
in this connection. 



REASOX. 423 



REASON". 

The exercise of comparison and judgment^ in the dis- 
criminating processes of classification, gives definiteness 
and exactness to tlie liabits of observation, and thus tends 
to produce certainty in our knowledge. But there ap- 
pears to be a still higher mental power, -which enables 
the mind to search deeply and scrutinize closglj even tlie 
obscure and uncertain or doubtful in our mental accumu- 
lations, till everything is brought into light, the false sep- 
arated from the true, and our conscious knowledge ren- 
dered positive. This highest mental power is called rea- 
son. This power of the mind differs from all others in 
its capacity for dealing with a multiplicity of objects and 
ideas at once, and drawing general results out of a whole. 

Reasoning is a mental process by which unknown truths 
are determined, or learned, by means of those that are 
known. We see some things to be true in consequence 
of having seen some other things to be true. This mode 
of seeing is called reasoning. If we observe what the 
mind does — what its successive acts are when it sees a 
thing to be true because it has previously seen another 
thing to be true — we shall observe the process of reason- 
ing.* 

For an illustration : suppose I hear a piano in a house 
as 1 pass along the street. I hear its sounds. I remem- 
ber that I have heard similar sounds, and that they were 
caused by a piano. I infer immediately that there is a 
piano in the house. The sounds, and the remembrance 

* Aldcn's Elements of Intellectual Philosophy. 



421 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of similar sounds and their causes, are the hiown truths; 
that there is a piano in the house which I am passing is 
the unknown truth which I determine to be true from 
the known. 

Again, suppose I observe dihipidated walls and the 
charred remains of timber. I infer that a building lias 
been destroyed by fire. The facts perceived and I'noion 
are the crumbling walls and charred remains, and the rec- 
ollection of the effects of fires previously known. From 
these facts I infer that the present ruins were caused by 
fire — thus determining the unknown from the known. 

• 
Mathematical reasoning is a process by which the mind 

determines unknown mathematical truths by means of 
those that are known. Mathematical reasoning places 
no reliance on testimony ; all the terms are exactly de- 
fined and limited. There is no possible ground of mis- 
apprehension. Each truth is proved beyond all possible 
question, or it is not proved at all. No possible room ex- 
ists for a doubt in the final result, which is as certain as 
the first. If the operation be accurate, the result of a 
problem requiring a million of figures is as certain as 
that of one requiring but two. 

Moral reasoning deals with things in the concrete. It 
l^laces reliance upon testimony. Its proofs have respect 
to matters and events as they actually are or have been. 

To be a good reasoner a person must possess an accu- 
rate ^erceiAion of the relations of ihbujs ; also a habit of 
fixed and patient attention, and a mind well stored loith 
]v7ioioledge. 

In exercising our reason we hold many threads of ideas, 
and bring them all into one centre, so as to determine the 
true result. Reason draws every mental and bodily pow- 
er into its service in directinir the course of human action. 



REASON. 425 

It governs the motives and thoughts and actions of man, 
and prompts him to provide for his own sustenance and 
happiness. 

Reason gives rise to hiw, government, jurisprudence, 
and social science, when applied to the necessities and 
wants of society, in determining and adjusting the rela- 
tions of property and the actions of men in reference to 
each other. In science we see the human reason in its 
more mature form investigating nature, prying into its 
elements, interpreting its laws, and then making all sub- 
servient to the wants of maid-zind. 

"We are not only surrounded by elements of nature, wliich 
we adapt to our personal wants and conveniences, but by forms 
of infinite beauty, by a universe which displays the most elaborate 
care and design, by a world, too, of human action ; and to these 
objective facts and realities the mind has respondent thoughts, 
emotions, sympathies, and desires. Reason, then, has once more 
to resume its task, and show us liow to adapt our life — the higher 
life of the soul — to this environment of Divine beneficence and 
human brothwliood. Morality and religion are essential to the 
full bloom of the human mind and the highest form of society ; 
and it is the reason which again in this highest sense helps to 
adjust the relations between the actions and habits of man, and 
the moral universe in the midst of which he is placed."* 

The extent to which reason is developed in any given 
case is measured by the number and the remoteness of tlie 
relations which can be grasped at one single view, or the 
number of ideas that can be dealt with at once, in deter- 
mining a result. The savage can show great acuteness 
and cunning in dealing Avith a few simple relations, but 
beyond this capability he becomes completely baffled. 
The Indian can plan a secret attack upon his enemy; but 
the attempt to grasp the strategical relations of a modern 

* Morell's Mental Philosophrj. 



42G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

battle lies entirely beyond his reach. Thus it is in every 
case, the remoteness of the means toward securing any 
given end is an almost perfect measure of the power of 
the reason which grasps and applies them. 

Reason may justly be called the truth-organ^ of the 
human mind, the guide and director of human activity. 
Truth is but a just apprehension of the relations of things 
in this universe to which we belong. It is by this facul- 
ty that these relations, in all their complexity, can be 
known or apprehended, and the great law of intelligence 
exhibited in its highest form. 

The ordinary investigator is satisfied when he can find 
an answer to the question, What is it f lie is contented 
when told that it is so and so. But it is different Avith 
the philosopher. Wheii this question is answered, he has 
another to put : How is it so and so? He is not satisfied 
with knowing the what, he must also know the how. 
That power of the mind which furnishes the answer to 
the question. How is it ? is called reason. It is the most 
far-ranging and the loftiest of all our intellectual powers. 
It enables us, from visible effects, to go back to the causes 
of these effects, into a distant past ; and from causes now 
in operation to anticipate the effects of these causes in a 
distant future.f 

Cultivation of Reason. — As soon as the child begins 
to observe and to think, his first steps toward reasoning 
are taken. But in this early stage the process of the 
mind is that of observing resemblances, and dealing only 
Avith present objects and present acts. The reaso7iing 
of children consists chiefly in making simple deductions 
or inferences from jpalpahle facts, or from the comparison 
of two objects, one or both being present. 

In this concrete form reason is exercised by children 

* Morcll. t McCosh's Typical Forms. 



REASOX. 427 

ivovcijive to ten years of age. Tliey will make their in- 
ferences from sounds, language, and actions, as well as 
from objects. Tliej can readily perceive the resem- 
blances between two or three objects, but their minds 
can hardly grasp anything beyond the simplest relations, 
at this period. Hence care should he taken hy the teacher' 
not to overwhelm the young pupils, while giving object- 
lessons, ivith numerous comparisons and soientijic classifi- 
cations, lest the terms or words employed remain but lit- 
tle more than unmeaning sounds to their minds. During 
the period preceding the age of ten years, the exercises 
for the cultivation of the child's mind must deal with 
realities, objects, actions, qualities, and simple relations ; 
not with the abstract, or those thoughts that require ma- 
ture judgment and the higher powers of reason to com- 
prehend. The methods of teaching should employ chiefly 
the perceptive and observing powers of the mind. 

Remarks under the head of Comparison will furnish 
suggestions for developing these simple powers of reason 
during childhood. 

Reasoning in its higher forms investigates the relations 
of abstract ideas, dealing with facts established by experi- 
ence and observation. The reflective faculties are chiefly 
active in its operations. The period from twelve to fif- 
teen years of age usually is the appropriate time for he- 
ginning to train the power of reason in its higher forms. 
Then the formation of habits of methodic thinking and 
systematic comparisons should be commenced. What- 
ever will add clearness, directness, conciseness, and a 
natural order to the habits of thinking and speaking, of 
readily perceiving and inferring all the relations of a 
subject, and deriving therefrom the proper conclusions, 
M'iil strengthen the power of reasoning. One cannot get 
skill in reasoning by studying rules which pretend to 
teach it. 



428 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

" Men Icara to reason by reasoning, and not by the study of 
treatises on logic. '^' '^' * Logic, as taught in the schools, does not 
profess to teach one how to reason. It professes to teach him 
how to cast an argument into a syllogistic form, in order that its 
soundness or unsoundness may appear from the form of the syl- 
logism, though the argument were not understood. * * * If rea- 
soning consists in perceiving certain relations existing between 
ti'uths, the power of cognizing relations should be exercised in 
preference to the practice of formal rules. 

" We learn to reason by reasoning, just as we learn to remem- 
ber by remembering. Let the student select the best specimens 
of reasoning to be found in the language. Let him make those 
specimens the subject of a careful study. Let him note how 
such men as Marshall and AVebstcr and other great reasoners 
reasoned, and let him go and do likewise. 

" The study of mathematics may form liabits favorable to 
moral reasoning, but cannot make a moral reasoner; that is, can- 
not make one skilful in reasoning on subjects that are not mathe- 
matical. The exclusive devotion of the mind for a long time 
to mathematical reasonmg has a tendency to unfit one for moral 
reasoning. The mind forms the habit of demanding certainty at 
every step, and acquires no skill in weighing probabilities, and 
evolving the truth from conflicting evidences. To estimate prob- 
abilities, and to reconcile apparent contradictions, and to detect 
tendencies, are processes which the reasoner on practical matters 
has occasion to perform daily; and lie who acquires skill in these 
processes is better fitted for practical life than he who has skill in 
the use of the calculus."* 

Matliematics liave too generally been considered tlic 
most important branch of instruction for cultivating the 
reasoning power of tlie mind. On this subject Sir AVil- 
liani Hamilton says that — 

" Mathematics are not adapted to produce the effect so com- 
monly ascribed to them, since they treat of nothing but quantity; 

* Aldcn's Elements of Intellectual Philosophy. 



REASON. 429 

wlicreas, in tlie other sciences, and in the affairs of life, wo are re- 
quired to deal with the relations- of facts in connection with phi- 
losophy, natural history, and language." 

The following, from " Notes to Locke's Conduct of the 
Understanding^'' by Thomas Fowler, of Oxford Univer- 
sity, is important testimony in relation to the matter of 
the cultivation of reason : 

" To cultivate habits of precise reasoning, and to train the mind 
to deal with abstract ideas and principles, no discipline can be 
better than that of mathematics. But a mind trained exclusively 
on mathematics would be ill-equipped to deal with the various 
and complicated problems of life and science. An early training 
in mathematical reasoning should always be supplemented, as ed- 
ucation proceeds, by forming a habit of analyzing and estimating 
the value of evidence in subjects which admit not only of certain, 
but of more or less probable, conclusions, such as language, law, 
the moral and physical sciences, history, and the affairs of ordi- 
nary life." 



430 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniNG. 



POWEES OF MOKAL ACTIOK 

THE FEELINGS, SENTIMENTS, AND EMOTIONS. 

Among the numerous acts performed by the human 
mind, of which every one is conscious, are those which 
are known by the terms j>erceiviug, re/noribo'ing, ima(/in- 
ing, and reasoning. These operations of the mind all be- 
long to the intellectual jwwers. There is also another 
class of actions by the human mind, equally apparent to 
the consciousness of ev^ery one, which are known as the 
feelmgs, and include the sentiments of benevolence, venera- 
tion, justice, self -esteem I also the emotions of love, affection, 
hojpe,fear, sorrow, hajypiness, desire, anger, etc. It is just 
as much the nature of the human mind to exercise the 
feelings as it is to exercise the intellectual powers. 

The mind has power to perceive right and wrong, love, 
hatred, desire, hope, sorrow, and justice, as well as form, 
number, size, weight, color, sound, odors, and flavors. The 
mind's acts in the former sphere are called its moral 
2)0wers', its acts in the latter sphere are known as its in- 
tellectual jpoioers. When the mind attends to the knowl- 
edge of things and truths in physical science, its intel- 
lectual powers are exercised ; when it attends to the 
knowledge of the actions of men, perceiving the right 
and wrong in them — truth and error — its moral powers 
are exercised. 

Conscience is the name generally applied to the 
mind's power of distinguishing good from evil, right 



POWERS OF MORAL ACTION. 431 

from ■wrong, in linman actions. But this idea is not en- 
tirely satisfactory, as it appears to give too much of an 
intellectual character to this power, instead of placing it 
as a moral light that leads iis to see our motives of moral 
action^ and tell us whether these motives are right or 
lorong. 

Conscience is to the moral sphere what consciousness 
is to the intellectual sphere. One cognizes truth in the 
moral Avorld, the other truth in the physical world. Con- 
science, however, is not so much a distinct faculty as it is 
the condition of all the moral powers. 

It is through the exercise of the moral powers that 
man recognizes his relation and duties to God — love, rev- 
erence, and obedience — and accepts the Divine command, 
" Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, 
and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all 
thy strength." 

It is through the exercise of these powers that man 
recognizes his relation and duties to his neighbor — benev- 
olence, justice, and sincerity — and the great principles for 
moral action taught in " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as 
thyself," and " Whatsoever ye would that men should do 
to you, do ye even so to them." 

Language is largely composed of words which symbol- 
ize ideas that belono; to the feelino*s and emotions. It is 
the business of moral education to strengthen the powers 
of perceiving truths and duties. Moral education is that 
training which leads to the permanent possession of right 
feelings, and to the performance of right actions. 

TRAINING THE MORAL POWERS. 

" Train up a child in the way he should go," is a com- 
mand of supreme authority. In obeying this, both parent 
and teacher will cultivate the moral powers of children 
that come under their instruction. This work should be 



432 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

commenced very early, because the emotions are active 
and tender in childhood. The fii'st six years embrace the 
most critical and important period in moral training; and 
the moral impressions received during the first ten years 
usually detei-inine the future moral character. The dis- 
position and character may not be completely formed dur- 
ing this period, but its inclinations and tendencies will have 
become so strong that it would require more than four- 
fold the power to change them that it took to form them. 

Means of Training the Feelings. — " The chief means of train- 
ing the feelings consists in drawing them out into action; we may 
say, the only means. A feeling apart from its corresponding ac- 
tivity is a mere sentiment; a thing of which onr neighbors are 
not conscious, which docs nothing, and which practically is noth- 
ing. Activity is natural to the cliild in its moral character, just 
as wc have seen it to be in its ph3'sical and mental. A child, in 
the presence of kindness and affection, exhibits a sympathy with 
it, or a return of it by something which it does. In the presence 
of pain, it tries its little to relieve it. We must therefore provide 
him with the means of acting out right feelings; and we must 
weaken by non-activity those of an opposite character. 

" If we would cultivate kindness in a child let us show kind- 
ness in our deeds, and he will return kind deeds ; if reverence, let 
us liabitually show the example of reverence, and he will conform ; 
if justice, honesty, truthfulness, we must arrange the little society 
of the child so that in the daily intercourse he will have opportu- 
nities of seeing and of exemplifying them. 

" If kindness, reverence, justice, honesty, and truthfulness be 
nerve acted before the child, then, however mucli these may be 
spoken about, he will have no sense of their obligation. It is 
only as acts that tlie child can know them ; in themselves they 
are abstract terms of which he can form no conception. So, if 
we wish to root out improper feelings, or to prevent their growth, 
such as vanity or the love of praise, rivalry or the love of supe- 
riority, we must withhold the praise which ministers to these 
feelings. The law of exercise is of universal application in 



POWERS OF MORAL ACTION. 433 

education ; and it needs to be specially insisted on in moral 
traininj^. 

" In view of this law the school offers a very wide field for 
moral training. There is great room for activity of all sorts. 
The children are in constant contact with their superiors in the 
person of the teacher; with their equals in the persons of their 
comrades ; they are under direct superintendence in the school- 
room, and allowed greater freedom on the play-ground. In the 
different occupations and the separate interests of the little socie- 
ty, all the feelings which relate to their neighbors have room to 
show themselves; while the feelings that relate to things — hon- 
esty, order, cleanliness, and diligence — are also exercised. 

" Provided the law of exercise be observed, provided the chil- 
dren be accustomed to associate immediate action with the feel- 
ings called np by the scenes which occur daily amongst them- 
selves, the teacher may avail herself of the power which imagina- 
tion gives her of multiplying indefinitely, both in number and in 
character, these scenes of represented feeling. The moral use of 
the imagination is to enable us to enter into the feelings of oth- 
ers by drawing a mental picture of their circumstances. At a 
scene of virtue or heroism a child will feel pleasure, and manifest 
approval ; at a scene of suffering or wickedness he will feel pain, 
aiid manifest disapproval. His moral instruction goes on in 
great part through the medium of this exercise of imagination ; 
for it leaves him images of good which recur to him, and with 
which he may compare himself. At the same time wc must be- 
ware of making this pass for the whole of his moral training. 
Moral action must not be superseded by this. 

" Moral training must be viewed as a positive, not as a negative 
process. A system of j)7-ohibitio7is tvill not insjni'e one good im- 
jmlse. This manner of educating, though very common, because 
very easy, is in every way deficient. In the first place, we have 
not the means of repressing faults in the child so easily as of en- 
couraging good dispofiitions. These prohibitions arc an insuffi- 
cient barrier in the hour of trial ; too often they are swept away 
at the approach of evil. They can never meet the exigencies of 
the case. Wc may have prohibitions for nvaiay wrong actions, 

19 



434 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

but wc cannot for all. But a positive principle is far-rcaclung 
in its influence. 07ie good disjiosition imbibed will strangle ten 
forms of vice. A child may annoy bis companion in many ways; 
be may strike him, or call bira names, or keep otbers from asso- 
ciating with bim, or tell talcs of bim, or ridicule bim. The pos- 
session of a controlling feeling of kindness, of a permanent desire 
of doing to others as you would have otbers do to you, would 
banish all of these annoyances. We must exhibit what is right 
for imitation, rather than what is wrong for warning. Vice 
should be checked ; but it is best done on its actual occurrence. 
The frequent portraying of it has a bad effect on the tone of the 
feelings, often suggesting the consciousness of vices to which the 
mind has hitherto been a stranger. 

" Before asking children to show generosity we should have 
previously associated pleasure in their minds with this manner 
of acting, in which case their desires will correspond with our 
wish. Great care should be taken neither to 23lace nor leave temp- 
tations in the loay of children, as is sometimes done in the course 
of instruction, by putting questions in such a way that the child 
must admit itself guilty of a fault, or of some negligence, or 
utter an untruth. Few can withstand this kind of temptation." 

TiTithfulness. — " Of the duties that flow from our social rela- 
tions, truthfulness claims to be first mentioned ; that sincerity by 
which men know that what we profess to think, say, or do, is 
what we really think, say, or do. Truthfulness, as a steadtj i^Tin- 
cijfle, does 7iot seem to be of spontaneous growth in the child. He 
docs not of himself sec the necessity of giving exact representa- 
tions of the past and future for their own sakes. Living in the 
present, he sees nothing in the facts which come before him that 
should prevent him from coloring them after his own fancy. 

" Truthfulness is the virtue of widest application ; fortunately, 
it is also that for the cultivation of which there is the most con- 
stant opportunity, as the child comes in contact with his own 
comrades, his teacher, and parents. To train a child in habits of 
truthfulness, be truthful toith him; say nothing that is not liter- 
ally true ; make no exaggerations ; leave no promises unfulfilled; 



TOWERS OF MORAL ACTIOX. 435 

remember all tbe expectations that you may have led him to en- 
tertain ; remember that even a single instance of untruth in your- 
self may unsettle bis perception of tbe obligation of truthfulness. 
Enforce the performance of every promise ; reward his confes- 
sions, as far as you may, with forgiveness. 

"Treat all with confidence till you have detected one deceiving 
you, and then restore not that one to your confidence till in the 
eyes of all of bis associates he has deserved it. Show the pain 
and surprise felt at a breach of trust. Treat all the little ones 
habitually with kindness and frankness, and thus banish fear, the 
2)arent of many lies. Lead them not into temptation. In speak- 
ing of honesty, do not ask a child before a class whether be has 
ever taken anything from bis father or mother, or brother or sis- 
ter, without their approval or consent. In treating of kindness, do 
not ask him to tell whether he has always been obedient and kind 
to his mother, and agreeable and kind to bis sister. Such ques- 
tions are snares for tbe conscience, and offer temptations to un- 
truthfulness that can hardly be resisted." 

Kindness. — "Next to truthfulness may be mentioned benevo- 
lence or kindness ; that feeling, the opposite of selfishness, which 
leads us to think of and sympathize with the feelings of others. 
A great deal of unkindness amongst children arises not so much 
from deliberate intention, as from thoughtlessness. The crown- 
ing test of kindness of feeling is the display of self-denial to 
oblige our neighbor. 

"This is illustrated in the case of a little boy that came to 
school one day without his lunch ; and when tbe rest were eating 
theirs at play-time, he had none. The teacher divided her lunch, 
and called one of the pupils to deliver a part of it to the fast- 
ing one, which he did gladly, as it called for no sacrifice. He 
felt satisfaction at seeing tbe want of bis comrade relieved. This 
satisfaction was heightened by the pleasure felt and expressed 
by the teacher. Not long after, the same pupil was observed 
quietly performing a similar act of generosity to another com- 
panion, at his own expense. The teacher saw the deed, and 
highly approved of it. Had the teacher prematurely taken a 



430 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

part of the Inncli from a pupil and given it to tlic one ■without, 
he would not have perceived the justice of such a proceeding, he 
would even have felt oppressed ; and, so far from a strong im- 
pulse to generous action having been lodged in his breast, the 
selfish principle would have been stimulated by being thrown on 
the defensive. Where kindness is, a number of common school- 
faults are banished, such as rudeness of manner, calling names, 
and the like." 

Honesty. — " Honesty, or a due regard to what belongs to an- 
other, is one of the virtues that must be implanted in the child 
from without, as there is no natural instinct which leads him to 
observe it. Ills desire of possessing is at first indiscriminate and 
unreasoning, so that it needs to be regulated Avith much pru- 
dence. It is not uncommon to prevail upon a child to restore 
Avhat is not liis own under promise of receiving something else. 
This is attempting to thrust out one vice by means of another. 
Neither will simple command or force, though perhaps a legitimate 
means of influence in the circumstances, inspire the right feeling, 
though it may put the property into the hands of its owner, 

"Some children have a stronger tendency to dishonesty than 
others; and this is commonly found stronger in those who arc 
subjected to bad influences at home. Sometimes it seems almost 
like an instinct in such children. Perhaps the best way to lead 
children to see the right way is to seize the moment for inculcat- 
ing truthfulness and honesty when the child has himself been the 
sufferer; not when he has been the aggressor. Then he will feel 
the justice of your proceedings, and be in a mood to fully assent 
to them. He cannot say a word in self-palliation, should he af- 
terward become the aggressor. 

"The teacher should show a punctilious regard to the right 
of property himself. All things that are found must be scrupu- 
lously returned to their owners, for whom search should be made ; 
so that importance shall be seen to be attached even to the small- 
est thing. Those who deliver up property which they find must 
be commended ; those who are detected in concealing it should 
be disirraced." 



POWERS OF MORAL ACTIOX. 437 

Admirable examples may be witnessed in some of tlio 
public schools of Kew York City for teaching children 
to observe the golden ride in the matter of things found 
by the pupils. It is customary for the children to take 
whatever article is found, in or about the school, directly 
to the principal, who advertises it before the assembled 
school several mornings ; then, if the owner does not 
claim it, the article is publicly presented to the pupil who 
found it. The frequent delivery of articles to the right- 
ful owners, also of the return of others to the finder, have 
furnished numerous incidents of exceeding interest to the 
children, and of great satisfaction to teachers and parents. 
These practical moral lessons have a lasting influence. 

" "While right action is the natural result of right feeling, the 
habit of action has, no doubt, a reflex influence on the feelings. 
It is, on this account, well to encourage in the intercourse of chil- 
dren acts which are but bits of ceremony, as greeting each other 
with 'good-morning' on meeting, or bidding 'good-night' or 
'good-bye' on separating, and of always thanking another for 
even tlie least favor. 

" Love is the earhcst emotion of which the child is conscious ; 
love to its parents, who supply its wants. This emotion should 
be elevated by parents and teacher toward God, as our heavenly 
Father, the common source of all good to both parents and child. 
"With love there should he inculcated reverence for God. This 
feeling may early bo inspired in children, or rather drawn out of 
them, for it is natural to infancy. 'Thou, God, seest me,' finds 
a ready access to the child's heart. Reverence and love should 
grow up together."* 

Habits. — "The sentiments which we desire to impress on the 
child must be cultivated till they pass into habits. In the power 
of habit lies the power of education. By means of habit alone 

* For the principal statements under the head of "Means of Training 
the Feelini;s," in the preceding pages, credit is due chiclly to Principles and 
Fractice of Earl ij School Education. 



438 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

we can fit any one for a spliere of life different from tliat •whicli 
he occupies ; and by the means of it we can fit him for any sub- 
sequent sphere of which the constitution of liis being renders him 
capable. We can accustom him to any direction of activity, and 
mould his character and temper to any standard. It is in virtue 
of two features of this power of habit that we are entitled to 
look to the efforts of education as having a rational certainty of 
success. The one is the indefinitely great influence which this 
power may acquire, under tlie effectual agency of proper train- 
ing. Strong as the instincts of our nature may be, we liave in 
habit a weapon with which we may overpower any one of them ; 
and that not by violence, but by quiet and almost imperceptible 
measures ; hence the saying that ' habit is second nature.' The 
other is, that as we are born, not with formed habits, but only 
with the cxqxicltij of habit, it is left to us to begin our habits our- 
selves. Character, therefore, is within the power of those who 
control the years of infancy and childhood. 

" The moral habits which education should foster are habits of 
ri[/ht action. There is no test of virtue except its exhibition in 
action ; we cannot otherwise be certain of its existence. A right 
feeling should have its issue in a corresponding action ; but it de- 
pends altogether on education whether the natural connection be 
established between them. When feeling is cut off from action 
it is a mere sentiment. In the general case the feeling perishes 
in the sentiment; for the oftener we speak of right, as a matter 
of sentiment alone, the wider becomes the gap between the feel- 
ing and the act, and the weaker does the feeling become, as in the 
case of pity. There is no education to morality apart from the 
practice of morality. Children, who are ready to act in obedience 
to every impulse, should therefore see enacted before them the 
virtues they are to learn. Example is vastly stronger than pre- 
cept. The society of which they are members should be so con- 
stituted and ruled as to give them the opportunity, as far as pos- 
sible, of carrying out into action the good feelings to which they 
show a tendency. On the other hand, just as right feelings are 
strengthened by right acts, feelings of the lower sort must be 
weakened by removing all stimulants and opportunities to act. 



rOWERS OF MOR.VL ACTION. 439 

" Habit is a power which cannot be left at our option to bo 
called into existence or not; it is given ns to use or abuse, but 
we cannot prevent its working. Children, with their infinitely 
varied impulses, and with all their experience to acquire, have an 
irresistible determination to activity. They cannot be subdued 
to quiescence and immobility, for we cannot suspend their natural 
growth, neither can we exclude them from forming habits of 
action. Whether we are conscious of it or not, we directly 
stimulate them to form certain habits, if we have intercourse 
with them at all ; for they hear what we say, and they see what 
we do, and their imitation follows inevitably. 

" The first moment at which there is capacity for action is the 
moment when we should begin the cultivation of habit ; the child 
is then eager and pliant. With advancing years the disposition 
becomes more rigid, the sense of doubt and the anticipation of 
difficulties become stronger, and the whole force of habits which 
have been allowed to form themselves has to be encountered, so 
that the task becomes incalculably more arduous. Early habits 
are at once the most easily formed and the strongest. The hab- 
its which are acquired in mature years never attain the same sta- 
bility as those formed in childhood. 

"The influence of habit invests single actions with an impor- 
tance far beyond what at first seems due to them. If we were at 
liberty to view actions by themselves, out of connection with the 
past and the future, many which require the gravest remonstrance 
would appear trifling and unworthy of serious notice. But the 
tendency to repetition is so strong, and in many circumstances 
so overpowering, that all who are charged with the education of 
youth fail in their duty, unless they are extremely vigilant in ob- 
serving even the smallest exhibitions of moral activity. Hence 
it is that the lie in jest, the thoughtless waste of some little thing 
which seems of no further use, the unpunctuality of a minute, 
always demand attention, lest they become the threshold over 
which the child may pass to confirmed habits of untruthfulness, 
prodigality, or irregularity. 

" The small and almost unobserved act of sympathy toward a 
neighbor or playmate, attention in removing a spot or other in- 



440 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHLN^G. 

jury from llic dress or property of another, and tlie great care 
taken to be exact in punctuality, deserve a coniniendatory notice, 
for these may possibly be the turning-points in the child's char- 
acter for benevolence, frugality, or regularity. We can never tell 
the effects of single actions ; it is only prudent, therefore, to 
treat them as important. Everything should be encouraged of 
whose salutary tendency we are convinced ; nothing should be 
permitted of whose evil tendency we have the slightest suspicion. 

" We are not to expect great results in education in a short 
time; sudden leaps in character are not according to the law of 
our constitution, and are therefore to be suspected. Again, since 
the implanting of any habit is so great a work, we should not 
attempt to instil too many habits at once. If we have several 
in view to inculcate, let us first select one to establish the power 
of habit in general ; when we have succeeded with that, we shall 
have given to the child a degree of self-control which will greatly 
facilitate his acquisition of the others. Again, there is but one 
way of correcting any bad habit which the child may have ac- 
quired, or of undoing any wrong association he may have formed. 
As it has not been formed in a day, so it is not to be overthrown 
in a day. 

" But implanting of habits alone does not constitute training 
to morality. Habit, without intelligence and conscious motive, 
is the characteristic, not of a rational being, but of a machine. 
Acts performed under its influence have no moral character, 
whether their results are in accordance with morality or not. 
A habit of seeming morality cannot be permanent and sufficient 
as a moral power. The routine conduct to which it leads may 
go on for a while, as long as the child is kept out of circumstances 
which might interfere with his obedience to it; but it will never 
stand against the rush of personal prejudices and interests when 
these clamor for a hearing. There is wanted inieUir/ence to give 
such acts a moral character that will I'emain secure against all 
opposing tendencies. Intelligence must be at hand to prevent 
'good intentions' from leading us astray."* 

* Extracts from PrincipJes and Practice of Commoti School Education, \)y 
James Currie, A.M., Principal of tlic Cliurch of Scotluud Training College. 



rOWEUS OF MORAL ACTION. 441 

Means for Moral Culture. — Experience has shown 
tliat the true means for moral culture are the same in 
character as those for ijliysical and intellectual culture, 
namely, exercise. But this exercise, to produce the desired 
results, and become of permanent benefit, must be had in 
conformity to correct princij^les, and be continued until 
habits are formed. 

There is no good reason why one habit should not be 
established as easily as another. Dnring childhood the 
season, the soil, the seed, and the implements are all in 
our hands, and we may choose what we will plant. Let, 
then, the companions, the precepts and examples, and all 
the surrounding influences, be such as shall furnish abun- 
dant exercise in truthfulness, justice, kindness, respectful 
obedience to parents, reverence and love for God, during 
the season of childhood, and habits of rigid feeling and 
correct action will be fixed that will gladden the hearts of 
parents, teachers, and friends with joyful anticipations. 

Virtue can influence, as well as vice infect; but the in- 
fluence of exan)ple in the practice of virtue is tenfold 
more powerful than good precepts alone. Therefore to 
teach trutlifulness, honesty, kindness, or any other virtue 
successfully, the children must see these qualities practised 
in the daily conduct of those around them. The maxim 
that "like begets like" is nowhere so fully exemplified 
as it is in our moral natures. The exhibition of love, 
kindness, gentleness, benevolence, sincerity, and truth be- 
gets like virtues in others. Children 'know hut little of 
virtue ill the abstract ; they comprehend it as it is em- 
hodied in the actions of those around them. Children 
who have never been deceived look upon promises as 
deeds, and a thread may lead them. Deceive them but 
once, and chains may be too weak to confine them. 

"Thou, God, secst me," if properly remembered, will 
impart strength and activity to the conscience, and aid 

19-^- 



4J:2 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

in establishing habits of truthfuhiess, justice, purity of 
tliought, humility, and kindness. 

" Our Father who art in lieaven " may be made tlie 
guiding sentiment in cultivating love, veneration, obedi- 
ence, and hope. 

" All things whatsoever jg would that men should do 
to you, do ye even so to them," is an injunction broad 
enough to furnish ample opportunities for the exercise of 
patience, kindness, and all the virtues which should gov- 
ern our intercourse with each other. 

Occasions for developing the moral natures of children, 
and means for exercises appropriate to this end, may be 
found in the occurrences of their daily lives. The famil- 
iar incidents so common to children furnish opportuni- 
ties of the greatest value for their moral culture. Words 
alone cannot develop the physical powers, nor strengthen 
the intellectual faculties ; neither will they produce mor- 
al character, nor develop those habits and virtues which 
contribute so largely to the happiness of ourselves and 
those around us. Moral character does not consist in 
words orprqfessio7is, but in actions. 



POWER OF WILLIXG. 443 



POWEE OF WILLING. 

THE WILL. 

"What the Will is. — The ^oill is a power of the mind 
which is manifested through the acts of the mind. Eve- 
ry choice and every rejection is a manifestation of the 
will. The will is the power of the mind to direct its own 
actions. It is mind acting upon the powers of mind. 
It is a motive-force of the mind. Its seat appears to be 
with the moral j)owers, but its influence extends over 
the intellectual powers also. Its immediate incentives to 
action are the desires. 

A Desire is an inclination of the mind for some object, 
or to do some act. It is a simple feeling which cannot 
be analyzed, although it is clearly known to our con- 
sciousness. 

"Willing cannot be defined ; but that which takes place 
in the mind, immediately in connection with the act of 
w^illing, and within the range of our consciousness, may 
be described. First, the mind experiences, feels, or is in- 
fluenced by a desire for some object, or to do some act, 
or to exercise some of its powers. Then the mind 
chooses, or decides, how it will act in relation to that 
desire. This constitutes the iwocess of loilling. 

When memory is spoken of as a faculty or power of 
the mind, it is readily understood what is meant, for ev- 
ery one is conscious of the acts of memory. With equal 
propriety may the will be spoken of as a faculty or power 



444 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

of the mind, jet what is meant by toill may not be under- 
stood readily by every one, for its acts are not so clearly 
conscious to the minds of all as are those of memorj'-. 
The powers of memory and will differ in their modes 
and spheres of manifesting themselves to our conscious- 
ness. Memory is the power of the mind for remember- 
ing. Will is the power of the mind for willing. Mem- 
ory deals with ideas that come from things which are ex- 
ternal to the mind. Will deals with the powers of the 
mind itself, directing their acts; and through them it 
controls the acts of the bodily organs. We are conscious 
of directing and fixing the attention upon any subject at 
our pleasure. That power of the mind which enables us 
to do this is the will. Care should be taken to guard 
against the impression that the will is some controlling 
agent separate from the mind, instead of a power of the 
mind itself. 

" A lad whose education lias been tolerably well conducted, 
whose trains of ideas have been formed in accordance with the 
realities of life, knows that he mnst be guided by knowledge, and 
that the produce of his labor must be husbanded with care and 
enjoyed with discretion. Sensible of all this, he toills to avail 
himself of the assistance of his instructor to acquire knowledge, 
and to form habits of application and self-restraint. And every 
successful effort of volition encourages him to persevere in the 
same track. 

"In that complex state of feeling which gives rise to volition 
there is felt a desire to do what others are doing around us. The 
acts of others in whose society we habitually live seem to exer- 
cise a kind of contagious influence over our wills. We first de- 
sire, then ioill to imitate them. This tendency is peculiarly ob- 
servable among the young. The old proverb, 'Evil communica- 
tion corrupts good morals,' or its counterpart, which is much 
to be preferred, ' Good communications correct bad and confirm 
good morals,' seems to be partly founded on this oft-observed 



POWER OF WILLING. 445 

tendency to imitation which prevail: among mankind. It may 
be doubted, however, whether the potency of this readiness to 
imitate lias been yet half acknowledged, or half turned to account 
in the grand business of education."* 

Influence of "Will on Character. — " The will is the im- 
mediate spring of all our actions. The understanding may per- 
ceive what our duty is ; the feelings may present us with motives 
to do it; but it is this third power which determines whether 
it is to be done or not. We cannot wonder, then, that in the 
business of life it is commonly viewed as the most important 
of our faculties, as that, indeed, which gives its complexion to the 
whole character. ' Character,' it has been said, ' is a completely 
fashioned will.' "f 

An aptitude for making a deliberate choice, and Lold- 
iiig steadily to that choice, indicates strength of will. 
Constancy and perseverance indicate sucli strength. Bnt 
obstinacy, or stubbornness of temper without reason, do 
not indicate this power. Obstinacy and stubbornness are 
perverted actions of tlie will. Powers of intellect may 
make a man an object of admiration, but without strength 
of will he can have but little influence over others. Even 
the accomplishments of education will become little else 
than so much ornamental fringe-work in life, without the 
influence of this power. A man's love of right and his 
desire to benefit society may not protect him from being 
made a dupe, or even being led to commit wrong acts, if 
his power of will is weak. 

Will gives decision of character. It enables its posses- 
sor to achieve great results. It gives power over others, 
and thus makes a man great in the estimation of his fel- 
lows. Men are obeyed or resisted, respected or despised, 
in proportion to their power of will and the manner of 
exercising it, 

* Ontlinea of the Formation of the Umlc):sta)uJinrj,hj William Ellis, London. 
t Prmciples and Fracticcs of Early School Education, by James Carrie, A.M. 



446 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniNG. 

Freedom of Will. — It is not intended here to enter 
into a discussion of this subject, about wliich so much has 
been said and so many vohimes written. A few simple 
statements concerning the freedom of will must answer 
the requirements of the present work. Tlie mind has 
freedom in observing, in remembering, in imagining, in 
comparing, and in reasoning. Each of these is an act 
of the mind. AVilling is an act of the mind. The mind 
is free to observe, to remember, to imagine, to compare, 
and to reason ; and it is equally free to will. No material 
restraint is laid upon it. No mental restraint is laid upon 
it. The mind itself is conscious, when it wills, that it ex- 
ercises freedom. Freedom of will, then, is the mind's 
])Owev of vnlling freely. 

Training the "Will. — We have seen that some desire 
always precedes the act of willing ; also that man wills as 
he pleases — that is, as he desires. He chooses or rejects 
at pleasure. Why does the mind, in willing, follow one 
desire rather than another? Why does the mind some- 
times will to do right, and at other times to do wrong? 
Proper exercise increases strength of the body, of the 
mind, and of its several powers. Remembering imparts 
strength to the memory ; reasoning adds strength to the 
reason; willing gives strength to the loill ; right willing 
develops good character. 

It is of the greatest importance that all who have any- 
thing to do with training the young should aim to so guide 
this power of the mind that it shall acquire hahits of right 
willing, and thereby attain that strength of will which 
gives steadiness of purpose, and enables its possessor to 
choose carefully and hold lirmly. The proper training of 
the will requires the most careful watchfulness on the 
part of parents and teacher. The foundation of right 
willing must be laid in early childhood. 



POWER OF WILLING. 417 

The two most important defects to be overcome in 
training the will are weakness and wilfulness. The first 
is seen in lack of decision, irresolution, inconstancy, 
ebangeableness of mind, hick of a purpose. The second 
is a vice arising from lack of direction or from misdirec- 
tion. Wilfulness is a state of temper in which the will 
acts in obedience to the nearest motive, without regard to 
the character of the motive. It implies strength of will, 
which, if rightly directed^ would lead to a character of 
excellence and great influence. Children manifesting 
the first defect — wealcness — need exercises to lead them 
to form habits of stronger wills ; while those exhibiting 
the second defect require processes of training that will 
give them habits of controlling and properly directing 
their wills. 

" The causes of these defects lie on the very surface of the 
children's daily life. Let a child be brought up so that by the 
over-watchful anxiety of its parents or guardians all its wants are 
anticipated, its gestures, and even its looks, scrutinized with the 
view of divining its desires, all situations in which it would feel 
the need of doing something for itself carefully excluded, and it 
will certainly follow that the nerves of exertion will be cut ; inde- 
cision and helplessness will exhale from the stagnant waters; it will 
be miserable wdien alone, and show only a sort of insipid, mean- 
ingless satisfaction wdien it does receive attention. Such a child 
is destined to be trodden down or pushed aside in the race of life. 

" Let a child be placed in circumstances where its nature is not 
understood or sympathized with, having none to appreciate its mo- 
tives, to encourage it to exertion, to caution it when the tempter 
leads it astray, or to approve it when it has triumphed ; let a 
harsh, unfeeling discipline drag it over the wilderness of fear, 
anxious only for submission, and the xoill will be crushed, the 
power and desire of activity will wither, while sullenness, gloom, 
dark suspicion, and cunning Avill supplant the nobler qualities of 
openness and decision. 



448 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING 

" Let a cliild be bronglit up under no fixed discipline, its guar- 
dian not being aware of tlic importance of this, or not capable of 
carr3-ing it out, or, perhaps, not being much with the child, thus 
ruling it only at intervals, while at other times it is left to itself, 
and the unsteadiness and violent contrast to which it is subjected 
must unsettle its dispositions ; its own whims, or the suggestions 
of chance, will appear as binding on it as the commands it re- 
ceives. Such a child will grow up unsubdued and unreasoning. 

"Again, let the activity of a child be confined within the nar- 
row groove of formality and routine ; let it be surrounded by 
laws which prescribe for its conduct down to the minutest trifles; 
let directions be given whenever there is danger of its erring ; let 
the smallest deviation from the accustomed path and pace call 
forth a senseless expression of affected wonder and dislike, and 
its -will will be swamped. "When it docs right it is never from 
its own choice ; it becomes timid and fearful of responsibility. 

" Once more, let us put the case in which the affections of its 
guardians, exercised without prudence, systematically allow the 
child perfect freedom from restraint, letting it choose for itself 
before it has liyht to guide its choice, viewing its desires as. law, 
or, perhaps, weakly purchasing ease by the gratification of them ; 
this makes emphatically the spoiled or u'ilful child. The will is 
deliberately thrown, bound hand and foot, among its rebellious 
subjects — the passions — who strip it of its dignity, and reign in 
its place — a miserable anarchy. This child's path is being set 
with thorns. AVe see such pictures in the family circle ; and it 
is certain that wc often see them still more deeply colored in the 
school. 

"The will acts in obedience to motives. The uneducated will 
obey those which are nearest at the time, though they may be 
the lowest of all motives — the animal propensities. 27ie object 
of moral education is to inspire the higher motives as an indwelling 
2)otver, and to accustom the will to that suspense u'hich is the first 
step toward obeying them. By cultivating the moral feelings we 
are at the same time educating the will, inasmuch as we are pro- 
viding right motives to influence it. 

"Children will be occasionally rebellious, from their volatil- 



I'OWER OF WILLING. 4J:9 

ity ; but obstinacy need not be feared, unless there be great mis- 
management, for they cannot ultimately resist ; and when they 
arc made to do a thing over and over, they come to think it 
natural ; moreover, it is an instinct In them to look up to their 
parents and guardians. If an obstinate child is introduced into 
school, it is not by any single stroke of energy that he is to be 
subdued : kindness and patience are the only means that will be 
completely successful. 

" The authority of the teacher should not be founded on his 
personal superiority. The selfish tendency is strong in child- 
hood, and will surely be incited to resistance; and, if we taunt 
a child afterward with his submission, we only harden him to dis- 
obey us at the next opportunity. The manifestation of strong 
passion, or bitterness of humor, tends to place authority on this 
insecure personal basis ; whereas calmness with firmness tend to 
elevate it above all personal considerations,"* 

Will a Power in School Government. — The secret 
of success ill school govern nient lies in the strength of 
ivill possessed hy the teacher, and the power of lecLd'ing 
the pujnls to desire and to will to do those things tohich 
are right. The means to be employed by the teacher 
for accomplishing this purpose should be of such a char- 
acter as will ultimately lead the pupils to a loilling obe- 
dience. The following- incident will illustrate what 
means are appropriate for the attainment of this end : 

A teacher was one day collecting the caps from a class 
of young children, to put them away in the closet where 
they were usually kept. One little fellow kept liis cap 
back, and threw it at the teacher as she was going to put 
the others away. He was quietly ordered to pick up his 
cap, go to liis scat again, and then deliver it in the right 
way. He took it from the floor and again threw it, but 
more gently than before. Again he was calmly ordered 
to pick it up and deliver it propcrlj'. This time, feeling 

* Fnnciples and Practice of Early School Education, by James Currie, A.M. 



450 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

the power of the teacher's will through the cahnly spoken 
words of firmness, he obeyed the command. Without 
exhibiting any temper or severity, the teacher made a few 
remarks to the class upon the importance of obedience, 
and the pleasure resulting from it. The next time that 
the pupils entered the school-room, and the teacher began 
to collect the caps, this boy was among the first to obey; 
and so willing was the obedience that he said to his teach- 
er, " I have done right this time." Had anger or bitter- 
ness been exhibited by the teacher in this case, although 
obedience might have been forced, it would not have pre- 
pared the way for willing obedience in the future. 

Authority, to be thoroughly established, so that it shall 
encompass the child beyond the teacher's personal pres- 
ence, must be founded on kindness and justice, and then 
it will command respect. Its reality M-ill be manifested 
in its own dignity and power. Its propriety will not need 
to be made a matter of demonstration. Its own utterances 
will be its sanction. 

An authority which leans on anything else than its own 
expressions, that needs to have its supremacy proven, has 
no substance. The shadowy images of impending terror, 
the indefinite hints about something to come, the loud 
threatenings by which some seek to maintain their au- 
thority with children, are really signs of distress — signals 
by which those who are conscious that they do not possess 
the authority which they ought to have, proclaim their 
own weakness. 

A proper training of the will requires that a just pro- 
portion should be maintained between obedience and 
freedom throughout the entire period of the educational 
course. 

" He that has found a way to keep np a child's spirit — easy, 
active, and free — and yet at the same time to restrain him from 



POWER OF WILLLVG. 451 

many things he has a mind to, and to draw him to things that 
are not easy to him — he, I say, that knows how to reconcile these 
seeming contradictions, has, in my opinion, got the true secret of 
education."* 

"Direct authority is not a power to be exercised indiscrimi- 
nately, but only where it is needed. It must supplement and 
strengthen motives, not supersede them."f 

The perfection of discipline lies in adapting obedience 
and freedom to the several periods of the child's devel- 
opment. Infancy is the period in which obedience should 
he learned. Before the child can choose lohat is good for 
him freedom is hurtful. Obedience is the first step in the 
chilcVs education to freedom. The sphere of the child's 
freedom is very narrow at first, embracing his animal or 
natural activity. It gradually widens as the child acquires 
habits of obedience and the ability to choose ; and when 
he comes to be conscious of resjjonsibility, he should be 
led to take res23onsibility, taking care that it be a fair re- 
sponsibility to lay upon him, and one in which the con- 
sequences of a mistake would not be detrimental to his 
own moral character, or to the best interests of his asso- 
ciates. As soon as good motives are found to exist in 
the child's mind, we should allow him to be stimulated 
to action by them, while we keep our authority in the 
background. 

" Whenever we can explain the reasons for any of our requests 
we should attempt it; but whenever these cannot be fully ex- 
plained, it is better not to give a partial explanation ; it will be 
best to say, steadily, 'You cannot understand this now; you will 
perhaps understand it som,e time hence.' Whenever we forbid 
children to do such and such things for any particular reason, we 
must take care that the reason assigned is adequate, and that it 
will hold good in all cases."J 

* Locke. + James Curric. 

X Fraciical Education, by Edgcwortb. 



452 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 

One of the gravest errors in training the will, and in 
maintaining good discipline, lies in an attempt to exact 
the same kind of obedience, and to allow the same degree 
of freedom throughout all the periods of the child's de- 
velopment. The temptation for the teacher to disregard 
the change of circumstances on the part of the pupil is 
very strong, from the fact that it is easier, and with many 
more agreeable, to supersede the will for the time being 
than to train it in habits of right self-action. To incul- 
cate an obedience that is free, and self-prompted, should 
be the aim of the instructor. This cannot be accomplish- 
ed unless the child be given room for the judicious ex- 
ercise of freedom. To he always exjpresdij commanding 
what the child may easily he led to do fi'eely of his own 
desire, will tiever confer on him the inestimahle hlessing 
of a strong character. 

" Constancy of will is one of the last blessings wliich education 
has to bestow. It is one not to be readied till trials of all kuids 
Lave been endured — till the mind has power to reflect attentively 
on purposes deliberately formed, of which the realization lies yet 
in the remote future. It is but a short distance that the child, 
with his extreme volatility, can advance toward this goal, yet he 
may imbibe from the whole of his school-training, if it be judi- 
ciously conducted, an impression of constancy of purpose. lie 
may feel himself enveloped by a power of which constant., steady 
aim is the mark ; and thus he may receive a bent in this direc- 
tion himself before he is at all conscious of the nature of the in- 
fluence at work upon him. Thus a foundation is laid for con- 
stancy of purpose by the habit of perseverance which is formed, 
and tliis is a most auspicious starting-point for the will when it 
comes to a full degree of self-consciousness."* 

Habits, to a great extent, constitute the character. 
They do not always have the sanction of the will; but, 

* Pnnciples of Education, by James Curric, A.JI. 



rOWER OF AVILLING. 453 

in effect, it is much the same as if they had. Habits be- 
come so strong that it is said they are a second nature. 
The formation of habits is the formation of character, and 
herein lies the influence of education to elevate the cliar- 
acter. The teacher should remember tlie use of this pow- 
er of habit in his work, and view all the acts of the child 
in the light of it. 

"Things often seem trifling in tliemselves which are of great 
moment when viewed iu this relation ; for what we do once we 
are apt to do again, and we find it easier to do at each repetition. 
The child imitates itself even more readily than it imitates others. 
Single acts may seem of small consequence, hut from their ten- 
dency to be repeated they are important. AVe can never estimate 
the effect of single acts ; and this should teach us to permit noth- 
ing in children of the propriety of which we have the smallest 
doubt. Not only in moulding the child to a certain line of con- 
duct, but in withdrawing him from a wrong one, habit is the only 
power available. One bad habit can be overthrown only by a 
good one growing up as a counter-agent; which, like its prede- 
cessor, must be formed gradually. 

" There is, doubtless, one danger attending habit ; it may de- 
generate into routine, thus subverting freedom. But we cannot 
help working by habit; we must form bad habits if we do not 
form good ones. In childhood habit is less mechanical in its 
nature than at a later period. The cliild's natural activity is so 
abundant that acting, though it be a repetition of the same thing 
again and again, is always fresh to him ; so that during the peri- 
od of early childhood there is nothing in habit which has a ten- 
dency to supersede will,"* 

* Principles of Education, by Juiuus Curiie, A.M, 



QUESTIONS. 455 



QUESTIONS 

PERTAINING TO ]\IETnODS AND PRINCIPLES OF 
EDUCATION. 

FOR TUE EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS. 

Ijf presenting a series of questions for the examination of 
teachers, and candidates for teaching, the aim has been to give 
several questions relating nearly to the same points, on each 
subject, in order to furnish a suitable variety to meet the differ- 
ing conditions, experience, and training of teachers, and also to 
enable those who conduct successive examinations on the same 
subject to vary the questions, and still be able to test the can- 
didate's knowledge. 

In using these questions it will be desirable, frequently, to 
change the phraseology of some of them, to adapt them to oth- 
ers selected on the same topic. In making a selection of a few 
questions from each subject, care should be taken that no two 
questions shall cover exactly the same points; also that the entire 
selection shall be sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the most 
important points in the topic under consideration. 



SCIENCE AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. 

METHODS AND ART OF TEACHING. 

1. What is education? 

2. What is the science of education ? 

3. What is a principle of education ? 

4. What is a method of teaching ? 

5. What is the art of teaching ? 

G. What is a system of education ? 



456 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING. 

7. Describe a method of teaching — selecting your suljject. 

8. State d4fl:ei'ences between a metliod of teaching and a iwinclple 

of education. 

9. Mention three or more general i)rincii3les that govern good 

methods of teaching. 

10. What are the teacher's duties toward his pupils? 

11. What is the work of the pupil in obtaining an education ? 

13. Should the pupil be chiefly a receiver^ or a doei\ in getting his 
education? 

13. What do you understand by the icvm developtncnt in teaching? 

14. Define the terms teaching^ training, learning. 

15. State the difi'erencc between illmtration and explanation. Which 

should be most used in primary schools? 

10. What is rote-teaching? Can it be made useful during any part 
of the process of instruction ? 

17. What is cramming ? Why should it not be used in school work ? 

18. What should be the first step of the teacher toward instruction, 

on taking charge of new pujiils ? 

19. With what must the work of instruction commence in any sub- 

ject, to insure the best results ? 

20. What should education accomplish for the pupil ? 

21. Mention three points that a good method of teaching should 

possess ; and state the sjiecial value of each. 

23. Mention two or more prominent characteristics of children; and 
state how tlie instruction in a primary school can be adapted 
to those characteristics. 

23. How can the natural activity of children be utilized in the 

methods of teaching ? 

24. By what means does the child gain knowledge of the world 

around him ? 

25. Wliat are those organs called that enable him to get knowledge 

from external objects? 
20. What powers of tlie mind are chiefly used by the child while 
gaining knowledge of things and actions ? 

27. What is the advantage of using more than one of the senses in 

gaining knowledge of the same object? 

28. Which setise is occupied by the pupil during oral instruction ? y 



QUESTIONS. 457 

29. Which sense is chiefly occupied by the pupil during illustrative 

teaching ? 

30. 'What jaeultj/ of the mind is most occujiied in learning lessons 

from books ? 

31. What means may the teacher rely upon to develoj) and strength- 

en any power of the mind ? 

32. Should the acquisition of knowledge be made the chief aim in 

the work of teaching ? 

33. What should be the general character of tlie school exercises, 

for young pupils, during the tirst three years in school ? 

34. Mention common faults of teachers in questioning i)upils. State 

important characteristics of good questions. 

35. What is the chief result toward which the teacher's work should 

tend ? 

36. What particular results should the teacher aim to secure in the 

pupil's mental and moral training ? 

37. Should the pupil's ability to commit lessons to memory, and re- 

cite them readily, be considered a standard of his knowledge 
of the subject ? 

38. ISFention the mental liowers, or faculties, that are chiefly exercised 

by children under ten years of age. 

39. State the three 2^criods of memory, and llic cliaracteristics of each. 

40. Mention studies that are adapted to each of the three periods of 

mcmorj\ 

41. What constitutes a prominent dilTereuce in the ability of jiupils 

to gain knowledge ? 

42. How may this difl'erence be lessened by the teacher's work 2 

43. Do children generally notice first the elements or parts of an ob- 

ject, then observe the object as a whole ? or do they notice the 
ohjcct as a ichole first, and afterward observe its parts or ele- 
ments ? 

44. What effect should the proper answer to this question have on 

the methods of teaching young children ? 

45. Should the teacher's chief aim be the communication of infor- 

mation to his pujtils ? 

4G. What is tlie first duty of (he teacher when presenting a new 
subject to a class ? 

20 



458 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

47. Why should the lessons for youug children be short, and the 

subjects changed frequently ? 

48. Under -what conditions may repetitions produce mental devel- 

opment, and aid in the acquisition of knowledge? 

49. Mention the i)rincipal powers of the mind, and the office of each. 

50. State a general principle by which any power of the mind may 

be strengthened. 

51. Which powers of the mind are most active during childhood? 

53. State the subjects of instruction which are best adapted to those 
faculties that are most active in childhood ; and describe the 
general plan of teaching which is fitted to the condition of 
young pupils. 

53. What is necessary to fitness for teaching? 

54. State how the teacher should proceed in the work of education. 

55. What part of a subject should be first taught, after the teacher 

has ascertained what the pupils already know relating to it ? 

56. Mention tlie general heads under which all human knowledge 

may be included. 

57. What exercises will tend to make the sight more accurate in its 

perceptions ? 

58. By what means may the sense of hearing be rendered more acute 

in distinguishing sounds ? 

59. Should lessons that exercise the several senses and tlie percep- 

tive faculties, or those which exercise reason and judgment, be 
chiefly used in primary schools ? 

[N.B. — For information that will supply answers to the foregoing questions, 
see previous pages in this book.] 



READING. 

1. When the young child first attends school, what docs he know 

that may be used in teaching him tlie first lessons in reading? 

2. Does he then know anything concerning language? If so, what 

is the known to him, in language ? 

3. Does he know words or sentences best ? How does he know 

them — by the ear, as sounds, or by the eye, as forms ? Wliat 
is the unknown to be taught ? Where and with what, then, 
should the teaching of language, or reading, begin ? 



QUESTIONS. 459 

V. 4. Wliich should be tanglit first — -words, sounds, or letters ? 

5. Would you use tlie blackboard, chart, or book first in teaching 
reading to j'oung pupils ? Why ? 

G. Mention important steps to be taken during the first month's 
instruction in reading, without the use of books. 

;>^ 7. State methods that you would use in teaching reading to begin- 
ners. 

V 8. How would you prepare a class of children for the Jirst lesson in 
a reading-book ? 

9. Mention the important steps, in their order, to be taken in teach- 
ing a class of beginners to read from books. 

10. State the steps which should be taken with a class of young 
pupils, in teaching them to read a new lesson from the read- 
ing-book, 

X^ 11. In beginning the use of reading-books in a class, what are the 
principal points to be attended to by the teacher ? 

A 12. Should reading generally be taught by directing the attention 
* of the pupils to the thoughts represented in the lesson, and to 

a distinct and natural utterance of tliosc thoughts, or chiefly 
by imitating the teacher's reading of the lesson ? 

13. While teaching a new lesson should the pupils attend to the 
meaning of single words chiefly, or to groups of words as used 
in i)hrases ? '\Vhy ? 

"V 14. Should i^upils be allowed to read words singly, or required to 
^ read tliem in groups ? Why ? 

15. Should instruction in the meaning of phrases used in the lesson, 
or the definitions of words receive more attention? Why? 

^ 16. What are the prominent characteristics of excellent reading ? 

17. Should instruction in reading, during school, be confined to the 

usual class reading-books ? 

18. Can reading in concert be employed so that the evil habits ac- 

quired by it shall not overcome all the good results that may 
be attained by it ? 

19. Write a brief outline of a good course of instruction for teaching 

reading — an elementary course, and an advanced course. State 
the principal ends to be attained in each course. 

20. Mention three important points in teaching reading, iu their 

order. State why each point is important. 



v: 



460 MANUxiL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 



SPELLING. 

S^ 21. Shoukl reading be tauglit by means of and through spelling; or 
spelling be taught by means of and through reading? 

22. Should the spelling of words be taught before their use and 
mcauing are understood ? 

^23. Should reading or spelling receive more attention in a jDriniary 
' school ? 

•y" 24. For what purposes should spelling be taught ? 

25. How can sijelling be tauglit so as to secure the object of teach- 
ing it ? 

PHONETICS. 

> 2G. What benefit do pupils derive from phonetics? 

27. Mention the chief uses of phonetics in school. 

y^ 28. What arc the uses of a knowledge of elementary sounds in 
teaching reading ? 

29. How should instruction in phonetics be given ? 

/ 30. Indicate sounds, and the silent letters in the following words : 
k/ilfe, what, school, though, cough, hough, chin, hox, seio, knead, ex- 
quisite, does, said, four, sure, teas, they, word, thing, lieight. 

[N.B. — For information relating to teaching reading, phonetics, etc., see 
Primary Object Lessons, 4Utli Edition.] 



OBJECT-TEACHING. 

^ 1. What is ol/ject-teaching f 

2. What is an object lesson ? 
•/ 3. What is tlie design of object-teaching ? 

4. State what children first notice in relation to objects. Should 

all lessons on objects be begun in the same manner ? 

5. State some of the uses of object lessons. 

6. Mention the important steps in an object lesson. 

7. Write a brief sketch of an ol>jcct lesson, showing what should 

appear on the blackboard Avhen the lesson is finished. 

8. What is the proper range of object lessons? 



QUESTIONS. 461 

FORM. 
9. "What would you give as tlie first lesson in fonn? 

10. Compare two of the following solids, and state their rcscm- 

Uances and differences — cube, pj'ramid, cone, cylinder. 

11. ]\Iention tlie two most important conditions, relating to paral- 

lel lines, that pupils should notice in order to understand 
the term. 

12. State the most prominent facts to be observed as to the shape of 

pl/ramids. 

13. Mention some of tlie advantages wliich children derive from les- 

sons on form. 

14. Wliat facts would you teach young pupils I'clating to the shape 

of a cule ? 

COLOR. 

16. Mention important uses of lessons on color. 

17. Wiiat exercises should constitute the chief lessons on color ? 

18. Why do not all children distinguish colors ? 

19. Wliat should the teacher endeavor to ascertain relative to color, 

concerning each pupil ? Why ? 

20. How may tests be made for color-hlindncss ? 

21. What do you understand by harmony of colors ? 

22. Mention uses of learning to distinguish harmony in colors. 

23. Mention colors used for signals, and what each indicates. 

QUALITIES. 

24. Mention some of the uses of lessons on qualities. 

25. State the important steps in a lesson on a quality. 

26. How would you proceed in teaching a lesson on elasticity ? 

27. Sliould lessons on single qualities, illustrated by several objects, 

or lessons on the several qualities in the same object, be given 
first ? Why ? 

28. How would you illustrate to a class the differences between 

fexible and elastic; comjn-essihle and malleaUe ; soluble and fusi- 
ble? 

29. Which are most appropriate for young pupils, lessons on differ- 

ent qualities in tlie same object, or lessons on a single quality 
with various objects ? 



4G2 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. 

ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 

30. State why lessons on animals are useful for object-teaching. 

31. Mention animals and their characteristics that may be observed 

by children during their first year in school. 

33. State the kind of lessons on animals that are appropriate for the 
older pupils in a primary school. 

33. Should such attention be given to lessons on single animals as 

Avill prepare for subsequent lessons on their classification ? 

34. Mention some of the uses of lessons on plants, for young pupils. 

35. State some of the important features of lessons on plants, as a 

means of developing habits of observation. 

3G. What is the general cliaracter of the instruction relative to plants 
which is suitable for i)rimary pupils ? 

37. Write a brief outline of a course of instruction for object lessons 
on one of the following topics : form, color, qualities, animals, 
plants, ohjects. 

[X.B. — For information relating to object-teaching, and methods for teach- 
ing different topics, see previous pages in this book ; also I'rimari/ 
Object Lcssons.J 

« 

NUMBER AND ARITIBIETIC. 

%^ 1. What should constitute the first lessons in numlyer? 

2. On what must the child's knowledge of arithmetic be based? 
• ^ 3. State the three steps necessary to complete the process of in- 
struction in each subject in arithmetic. 

n/ 4. State a method for teaching pupils to add readily and accurate- 
ly, without counting. 

5. Give examples of a good method for teaching the following 
rules: addition, snUraction, imdtiplication, division. 

G. How should lessons on the taNes of loeiglits and measures be in- 
troduced to a class ? 

7. What are the principal ste2)S in teaching notation and numera- 

tion? 

8. In oral arithmetic, what points should be kejjt in view in decid- 

ing what forms of solution arc best for young children ? 

9. Into liow many steps, or difficulties, would you divide the work 

of teaching division ? 



^ 



< 



QUESTIONS. 463 

10. What should constitute the lessons in arithmetic during the 

child's first year in school? What during the second and 
third years? 

11. What general plans would you pursue in teaching the tables of 

weights and measures ? 

12. State the difficulties to be explained in teaching multiplication. 

13. Write a brief outline of a good course of instruction for teaching 

arithmetic — give three or more steps for the elementary course, 
and three for the advanced course. State the principal ends 
to be attained in eacli step of the course. 

[X.B. — See Primarii Object Lcsso)is.^ 



^ 



GEOGRAPHY. 

1. With what should the lessons introductory to geography begin? 
3. What should constitute the first lessons in geography ? 

3. State a general plan for giving early lessons in geography. 

4. How would you give the child ideas of the world, its shape and 

size ? 

5. What is the natural starting-place for teaching geography ? 

6. What sliould be the general character of the instruction in ge- 

ography in primary schools ? 

7. What classes of facts do you consider most useful for advanced 

pupils in geography ? 

8. Write a brief outline of a good course of instruction for teaching 

geography — including the introductoiy steps. 

[N.B. — See previous pages in this book.] 



SCHOOL MANAGE^IENT. 

1. What qualities, in the teacher, are conducive to success in school 

government ? 

2. What should the teaclier endeavor first to ascertain, in relation 

to his pupils, as necessary to success in the management of his 
school ? 

3. By what means should the discipline of a school be secured? 



464: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 

4. How may the processes of instruction be made to aid in the dis- 

cipline of a class ? 

5. What means may be nsed for elevating the general character of 

a class, in respect to good conduct ? 

6. How may pupils be trained to habits of orderly behavior, and 

prompt and willing oljedience ? 

7. When is praise projier, as an aid to school management ? 

8. What is the general effect of scolding, fault-finding, and censure 

upon puijils ? 

9. State how encouragement may be made effective in the manage- 

ment of i:)upils. 

10. What is the effect of frequently telling children of their faults, 

before the class ? 

11. Sliould the teacher's chief aim, in the discipline of his class, be 

to correct individual faults, or to overcome them by develop- 
ing the jiublic opinion of his class in favor of the right, and 
to dislike the wrong ? 

~^}-^12. Should the formation of good habits, as to character or the ac- 
quisition of knowledge, constitute the chief aim in school dis- 
cipline ? 

13. What constitutes good order in a school ? State some methods 

by which it may be maintained. 

14. State important matters to be attended to in the organization 

of a scliool ; why each matter is important; also what means 
are adapted to secure the best results in school organization. 

15. What should the teacher do when the jjupils cease to give prop- 

er attention to the lesson ? 

16. Mention some of the means that are appropriate for securing the 

attention of pupils. 

17. State general plans of discii)line that are successful in the man- 

agement of school. 

18. What means would you employ for maintaining order in your 

class ? 

[N.B. — See previous pages in this book.] 



INDEX 



A. 

Activity, Love of Pafie 

Allspice 

Analogy 

Animals, Lessons on — first stage 
" " " second " 
" " " third " 
" Classification of — sim- 
ple 

Animals, Classification of— Sci- 
entific 

Animals, Branches of 

" Classes of 231- 

" Orders of 23(i- 

Atmosphcre ; its properties . .331- 

Attention 

" Culture of 



404 
140 
4:20 
177 
181 
202 

199 

229 
230 
■235 
■239 
■334 
402 
403 



B. 



Bat. 



187 

Bay 55 

Birds, Orders of 237 

" Families of 243-245 

Blacksmith 291 

Boundaries, Exercises to develop 

ideas of. 44 

" Boxing the Compass " 41 

Butterfiy 198 



Caleitc 275 

Camel 210 

Candles 1.53 

Cape 56 

Carpenter 290 

Cat 182,205 

Chalk 276 



Chemistry; or. Elements of Sub- 
stances Page 

Cinnamon 

City 

Classification of Animals — Scien- 
tific 

Classification of Knowledge gain- 
ed by the Senses 

Cloves 

Coffee 

Color — Additional Suggestions 

for Teaching 

Color-blindness 110, 

Tests for 

Colors, Mixture of. 97- 

" " " Illustrative 

Exercises 

Colors, Harmony in 100, 

" Lessons in Harmony 

of 119, 

Colors, Advanced Lessons on 

" Effects on Complexion. . 

" " by Contrast 

" Review of Lessons on. .. 

" as Signals 

" as Emblems 

" Statements about, for 

Teacher..*. 

Colors, Pigments that represent 

them 

Colors, Complementary, How to 

find 117, 

Common Studies, other means 

needed for Training 

Common Things, Science of 

Comparison 

" Culture of 

Conception 



278 
143 
56 



229 

374 
137 
148 

93 
111 
112 
-103 



lis 

120 
117 
110 
107 
103 
114 
115 

103 

124 

118 

27 
331 
416 
417 
336 



2U* 



•iOG 



INDEX. 



Conscience Page 430 

Cotton 157 

Countries, How locations may be 

Learned GO 

Cow 209 

Cuckoo 23(3 

Curiosity 40i 

D. 

Desire, A 443 

Developing tlie Powers of Mind 375 

Direction 33 

" Exercises to develop 

ideas of. 43 

Directions for Teachers 34'J 

Discipline — School 317 

Distance 33 

" Exercises to develop 

ideas of 43 

Dog 185,208 

Dolomite 275 

Dragon-fly 214 

Duck 203 

E. 
Earth, Proof that it is Round ... 58 
Earth's Shape, to develop ideas 

of 57 

Earth's Size, to develop ideas of 57 
" Surface, Representations 

of, on Globe and JIaps 59 

Earth-worm 191 

Education, Science of. 341 

" Principles of 347 

Educational Terms — Definitions 

of 343 

Elements of Knowledge, How 

the Child obtains..../. 23 

Elements of Mental Activity 359 

" of Substances 278 

Elephant 231 

Emotions 430 



Facts for Teachers, about Plants. 253 
" " " " "Weight 70 
" " " " Colors. 103 
" to be remembered 330 



Feeling, or Touch Page 371 

Feelings 430 

" Means of Training the 433 

Feldspar 274 

Flax 1.58 

Flowers, Shapes of. 255 

Form, Additional Methods for 

Elementary Lessons 77 

Form Lessons, Review Exer- 
cises 81,82 

Form Lessons, Advanced Les- 
sons on 84 

Fruits 170 

G. 

Geography 49 

" First Lessons in Ele- 
mentary 51 

Geography, where to begin First 

Lessons 51 

Geography, how to proceed 51 

Ginger 143 

Glass 1G4 

Globes 59 

Goat 18G 

Grains 170 

Granite 274 

Grasshopper 195 

H. 

Habits 437 

Harbor 5G 

Harmony in Colors 106 

" " " Lessons in.. 130 

Hearing 3G9 

Hemp 158 

Hen 204 

Hill 52 

Honesty 436 

Horse 220 

How Nature Teaches a Child 355 

I. 

Imagination 408 

Culture of 411 

India-rubber 163 

Insects, Orders of. 239 

Island 51 



INDEX. 



467 



J. 

Judgment Page 421 

K. 

Kindergarten 17 

Kindness 435 

Kinds of Type used 2'.)5 

King-bird 220 

Knowledge gained by the Senses 

— Classification of 874 

L. 

Lake 55 

Land 59 

Language 38-1 

" Culture in the Use of. 3S0 
" Means of developing.. 27 

" Importance of 395 

Leather IGl 

Leaves, Shapes of 252 

Limestone 276 

Lion 206 

Location of Countries, How 
learned GO 

M. 

Mace 142 

Mammals, Families of 240-242 

Man's Nature and Powers 364 

Map-drawing as a Means of teach- 
ing Geography G2 

Map-drawing, How to commence G3 

Maps 44 

" Scale of 47 

Materials for Advanced Lessons 

on Objects 130 

Mechanical Powers 337 

Memory 392 

" Culture of 396 

" Three Periods of. . . .397-400 

" Human and Brute 395 

Mental Activity, Elements of 359 

" Acquisition, Powers of .. 379 
" " Cultivation 

of 379 

Mental Reproduction, Powers of 384 
Methods of teaching. Importance 
of Attention to 25 



Metric Measure Page 74 

Mind, the 364 

Minerals 273 

" Prepare Pupils to ob- 
serve them 274 

Mineral-letters 279 

Moral Action, Powers of 430 

" Culture, Means of 441 

" Powers, Training the 431 

" Training 317 

" Facts to be Remembered, 320 

Mountain 55 

Mouse 188 

Muscular Sense 372 

N. 

Natural History 171 

" " Lessons on Ani- 
mals — first stage 177 

Natural History, Lessons on Ani- 
mals — second stage 181 

Natural History, Lessons on Ani- 
mals — third stage 202 

Natural History, Notes for Les- 
sons in 819 

Nature Teaches a Child, How . . . 355 

Nerves 3G5 

Nutmeg 141 

Nuts 170 

O. 

Objects, Properties of 125 

" Materials for Advanced 
Lessons on 136 

Object-teaching, Design of. 15 

" " itsElfccts 30 

" " and Object Les- 
sons 21 

Object-teaching, Range of 31 

Stagcsof ..17, 18, 19 
" " Wliat it implies 16 

" " "What is it?.... 29 

Observation 380 

Occupations 282 

" Lessons on 285-288 

Organs of Sense 307 

Ostrich 216 



468 



INDEX. 



P. 

Painter Fage 293 

Pepper loi) 

Perception 305 

Pereeptiveuess 305 

" Cultivating 375 

Pliysical Trainin.<r 297 

" Exercises 301 

" " Drill in 312 

" " Arm move- 
ments 301 

Physical Exercises — Chest move- 
ments 30C 

Physical Exercises — Hand move- 
ments 304 

Physical Exercises — Head move- 
ments 305 

Physical Exercises — Knee move- 
ments 305 

Physical Exercises — Sets of move- 
ments 310 

Physical Exercises — Trunk move- 
ments 307 

Physical Exercises — Teaching the 
movements 309 

Place 33 

" Exercises to develop ideas 

of 34 

Plain, About a 54 

Plants 247 

" Annuals 248 

" Biennials 248 

" Families of 258 

*' Facts about, for Teachers. 252 

" Family Relations 250 

" Habits of 249 

" Hints for giving lessons on 250 

" How they take food 247 

" Kinds of 248 

" Lily Family 258 

" Perennials 248 

" Pink Family 2G0 

" Poisonous Families 2fi4 

" Poisonous 264 

" Rose Family 262 

" Shapes of Flower 255 



Plants, Shapes of Leaves Page 2.52 

" " " Roots 256 

Porcupine 222 

Powers of Human Reason 410 

" " Mental Acquisition .. 379 
" " " Reproduction 384 
" " Mind, Developing the 375 

" " Moral Action 430 

Power of Willing 443 

Prairie-hen 205 

Principles of Education 347 

Printer 293 

Properties of Objects 125 

Putty 154 

Q. 

Quail 204 

Quartz 274 

Questions for examination of 
Teachers 455-104 

R. 

Rabbit 189 

Rat 223 

Reason 423 

" Cultivation of 420 

" Powers of Human 410 

Reasoning 423 

" Mathematical 424 

" Moral 424 

Reptiles, Orders of 239 

Reviewing Form Lessons 81 

" Lessons on Color 102 

Rhinoceros 221 

River 53 

Robin 190 

Roots, Shapes of 250 

S. 

Sngo 144 

Salt 150 

Sandstone 274 

Science of Common Things 331 

" " Education, Introduc- 
tion 341 

Sea-lion 223 

Seeing 307 

Seeds of Graiu-beuring Plants . . . 108 



LNDEX. 



469 



Seeds of Pod- bearing- Plants. Pajre IG'J 

" How they (irow 248 

Sensations 3G5 

Sense, Origans of 3G7 

" Classification of KiiOwl- 

cdge gained b^' tlic 374 

Senses, The 3(>4 

Sentiments 430 

Scliool Discipline 317 

" Facts to be Re- 
membered 3;20 

School Goverumcut, Will a Power 

in 449 

Sheep 210 

Shoemaker 287 

Silk 159 

Smelling 372 

Snail 192 

Soap 153 

Soda 151 

Sound 334 

Sparrows 227 

Specific Gravity 337 

Spider 190 

Substances, Lessons to develop 

Ideas of 120 

Substances, Classes and Kinds of 127 

" Elements of 278 

" Materials for Ad- 
vanced Lessons on Objects 130 

Substances, Notes of Lessons on. 157 
" Subjects for Lessons 

on 100 

Substances, Suggestions for Les- 
sons 137 

Sugar 14(; 

Sympathy 405 

T. 

Tailor 280 

Tapioca 145 



Tasting Page 373 

Teaching, Complete Fitness for 349 

Tinsmith 291 

Toad 194 

Touch 371 

Trades 282 

" Lessons on 285-287 

Training the Moral Powers 431 

" Will 440 

Truthfulness 434 

V. 

Valley 54 

Village 56 

Vision, Phenomena of. 108 

W. 

Water 59, 330 

Weight 07 

" Exercises to develop 

Ideas of 08 

Weight, Facts about, for the 

Teacher 70 

Weight, Necessity of Standard . . 70 
" of Objects — Comparative 72 

" Tables of 70 

Whale 224 

Whalebone 155 

What people do— Trades, etc. . . . 284 

Whippoorwill 220 

Will, a Power in School Govern- 
ment 449 

Will, Freedom of 440 

" Influence of, on Character 445 

" training the 440 

" —What is it? 443 

Willing, Power of 413 

Wolf 208 

Woodpecker 225 

Wool 159 



THE END. 



CALKINS'S PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS, 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS, FOR TRAINING THE 
SENSES AND DEVELOPING THE FACULTIES OF 
CHILDREN, A Manual of Elementary Instruction for Par- 
ents and Teachers. By N. A. Calkins. Fifteenth Edition. 
Re-^Yritten and Enlarged. 12mo, Cloth, $1 00. 

"Instruction must begin ■with actual inspection, not with verbal descrip- 
tions of things. From such iusiicction it is that certain knowledge comes. 
What is actually seen remains faster in the memory than description or 
enumeration a hundred times as often repeated." Tluis wrote Jolin Amos 
Comenius, an exiled teacher of Austria, about the middle of the sev.cutcenth 
century. And to the introduction of his works Germany is largely indebt- 
ed for the great progress in her schools which commenced during that cen- 
tury. Said the great Swiss educator, Pcstalozzi, at the close of the eigli- 
tecnth century, "Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge. The 
first object, then, in education must be to lead a child to observe with accu- 
racy; tlic second, to express witli correctness the result of liis observa- 
tions." On the philosophical principles taught by those two great educa- 
tors, and confirmed by tlie experiences of subsequent observers, is based the 
system of mental development illustrated in the present work. 

The work differs from others prepared for teachers in this important feat- 
ure : it illustrates how the teacher should proceed at each successive step 
in developing the minds of children. In telluig what owjld to he done, it pro- 
ceeds to shov) how to do it by illiiMrative examples. 

The present edition of the Primary Object Lessons has been entirely re- 
written, re-illustrated, and enlarged. Jt is essentiaUy a new tvork. 

The difference between the lessons of this and former editions consists 
chiefly in the methods of giving them ; the princijiles of the system on which 
they are founded remain unchanged. 

This work embodies the results of the author's experience of nearly eiyht 
years as a Superintendent of the Primary Schools in the City of New York. 

It is intended to present a course of instruction by the system of Object 
Teaching, embracing the period and the methods of elementary training 
necessary to fit youth for the acquisition of such knowledge from books and 
from nature as will prepare them for the duties of subsequent life. 

It should be in the hands of every j^rofessional teacher. 



Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York. 

Haepek & Brotiihhs wiU send the above work by mail, pnxfage prepaid, to any 
part of the United States, on receipt of the price. ' 



METHODS OF TEACHIN&. 



METHODS OF TEACHING. A Hand -Book of Principles, 
Directions, and Working Models, for Common-School Teach- 
ers. By John Swett, Principal of the San Francisco Girls' 
Higli School and Normal Class. 12mo, Half Leather, $1 25. 

An admirably sensible and susjgcstive liand-booli of principles and work- 
ing models of methods of teaching. It is tlie worlv of an experienced and 
earnest teacher who seeks liere to give to other earnest teacliers tlie best 
resnlts of liis experience. * * * His views are thoroughly enlightened and 
liberal, and his book is rich in suggestions which cvci-y earnest teacher will 
welcome. — ^V. Y. Eveniuf/ Font. 

The work embodies the most progressive kind of teaching, and is marked 
by sound common-sense. — Providence Journal. 

One can hardly open the book without finding something that would be 
of value to teaclier or pupil. — Rochester Express. 

One of the best practical works on education ever published in this coun- 
tr}'. — Vtlca Herald. 

The tlieory of education on which the book is written is a sound and 
healthy one, and docs not propose to achieve by pictures and general good 
nature what can only be accomplished by the enthusiasm developed under 
hard drill. — Independent, N. Y. 

The book is replete with common-sense, and its practical directions are 
clear and i^reeise. — N. Y. Evening Mail. 

The author of this volume deals with the subject of our common schools, 
their advantages and defects, and the best methods of remedying the latter, 
in a practical manner that places his work I'ar in advance of the general av- 
erage of those on education. — N. Y. Times. 

It speaks with the emphasis of experience, and to the thoughtful teacher 
who aims to learn the best ways and to employ them, it is calculated to be 
a real help. — Troij JJudr/et. 

In every way the work is interesting and instructive in a high degree. — 
Wisconsin State Journal. 

' Few better books for educational purposes have seen the light. — Boston 
Commonwccdth. 

In every page of this work the reader feels that he is under the guidance 
of a master. — N. Y. Herald. 

We recommend it as a practical hand-book, worthy a place on any teach- 
er's table. — Literartj World, Boston. 

A fresh, practical presentation of the directions most needed by our pub- 
lic school teachers. — San Francisco Bulletin. 

Deals directly with the practical needs of the school-room, and cannot fail 
to be of great service to all who are interested in or engaged with the busi- 
ness of education. — Boston Evcninr/ Transcript. 



Published by HARPER & ]}ROTHERS, Nkw York. 

Haepku & Beotiif.r.s «'?7? send the ahoi-e vwrk hy mail, postage prepaid, to any 
jtart of the United SlatAis, on receipt of tlie inice. 



